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Biology 60 > Exam 4 > Flashcards

Exam 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

A fertilized egg will form _______ that cell will divide many times and as it divides it will differentiate into different tissues.

A

zygote

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2
Q

Our body after cell division and differentiation has about ____

A

200 different cell types

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3
Q

What is Stem cells?

A

Stem cells stay behind they sit in the surrounding tissue that divides and differentiates and they stop dividing and sit undifferentiated unspecialized.

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4
Q

_________can give rise to specialized cells once they are called to action.

A

Stem cells

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5
Q

Scientist discover that some stem cells if kept in the lab can_______

A

cell divide and while others cannot, some can also differentiate into whole array of cells, and some cannot.

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6
Q

What is High Genetic potential?

A

If I have a stem cell that can divide and differentiate with success for years, then I say this cell has high genetic potential

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7
Q

Genetic potential of stem cells decreases with _______

A

our age

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8
Q

What are the two types of stem cells?

A

Embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells

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9
Q

What’s the difference between Embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells when it comes to differentiate.

A

Embryonic stem cells: can still differentiate and adult stem cells: can no longer differentiation

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10
Q

Embryonic stem cells are called__________

A

pluripotent

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11
Q

What can Embryonic stem cells do?

A

they can differentiate into pretty much any type of the cell in the body

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12
Q

What can Adult stem cells do?

A

they can differentiate into a limited number of cells there

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13
Q

Ault stem cells are called_________

A

multipotent

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14
Q

What’s the process of hierarchy of stem cells?

A

First we start with the totipotent which makes the entire organism, then we have pluripotent which is an embryonic stem cell then they turn into adult stem cells to

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15
Q

Stem cell will always get the _______ DNA

A

maternal

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16
Q

Where are adult stem cells found?

A

most parts of the body, including brain, bone marrow, blood vessels, skin, teeth and heart

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17
Q

where do we collect Embryonic stem cells?

A

Can be collected at the blastocyst where we have 100 cells

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18
Q

Embryonic stem cells can be kept alive____.

A

can be kept alive indefinitely

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19
Q

What is Stem cell line?

A

A replicating set of stem cells from a single blastocyst

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20
Q

Embryonic stem cell are capable of ________into almost any type of cell

A

differentiating

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21
Q

Why are people against on getting Embryonic stem cells?

A

we destroy the embryo

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22
Q

Cancers cells have the same characteristics to ____________able to _______

A

Embryonic stem cells, divided fast

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23
Q

Use for repair

A

Adult stem cells

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24
Q

Caple of differentiating into cell type of the tissue in which they reside

A

Adult stem cells

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25
Q

Plasticity and survival is limited

A

Adult stem cells

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26
Q

Very small number of stem cells in each tissue

A

Adult stem cells

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27
Q

Which of the following statements correctly describes characteristics of adult cells and other cell isolated from the same tissue at the same time?

A

The two cell types have different patterns of DNA methylation

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28
Q

Adult cells reprogrammed by ________.

A

gene transfer

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29
Q

What does iPS stand for

A

Induced pluripotent stem cells

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30
Q

What is IPS?

A

skin cells were transformed into Es cells by using retroviruses to introduce extra cloned copies of four stem cells regulatory genes

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31
Q

Which of the following processes is used to convert adult cells into pluripotent stem cells (Ips).

A

A retrovirus is used to introduce four specific master regulatory genes

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32
Q

Making iPS cells from sick people provides a way to study the cells of those people
Including:

A

-Huntington’s disease
-Gaucher disease
-type I juvenile diabetes

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33
Q

What are mesenchymal stem cells?

A

multipotent stem cells found in bone marrow that are important for making and repairing skeletal tissues, such as cartilage, bone and the fat found in bone marrow

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34
Q

Stem cell Based Therapy for the treatment of _________

A

Burn

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35
Q

What is Therapeutic cloning?

A

using stem cells to cure someone like heat, cancer
Its cloning because they are the same genetically cells only with different gene expression

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36
Q

What is Reproductive cloning?

A

attempting to create a new organism with is genetically identical to its parent

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37
Q

The cloning of Dolly the sheep is an example of which of the following processes?

A

transfer of an adult cell’s nucleus into an enucleated sheep egg, followed by incubation in a surrogate

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38
Q

What are some reasons why Dolly the sheep die young.

A
  • It could be due to the length of the telomeres as we age we lose telomeres because of DNA replication of the lagging strength
    It could also be that the epigenome wasn’t wipe out
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39
Q

Reproductive cloning of human embryos is generally considered unethical. However, on the subject of therapeutic cloning, there is a wider divergence of opinion. Which of the following statement provides the best argument in support of therapeutic cloning?

A

cloning to produce embryonic stem cells may lead to great medical benefits for many

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40
Q

cancer is a genetic disease because _______________

A

it relates to our genetic material.

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41
Q

Cancer is not a genetic disease______

A

in many cases is not inherited

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42
Q

What happens in the (first mutation) ?

A

boost of energy happens and replace the nucleotide (first mutation) in that one cell and that cell did not die, can reproduce cellularly by mitosis

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43
Q

What happens in the second mutation?

A

(Second mutation) a clone from the first mutation and each of them is carrying that first mutation. The cell is still doing ok.

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44
Q

What happens in the third mutation?

A

(Third mutation) a patch of cells that now carry two mutations

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45
Q

What can Healthy cell
do?

A

-reproduce when it is told to divide and it obeys signals that are coming from two sides, opposite sides that are generated by proteins and proteins are coded by genes.
-cell goes through cell cycle
-cell division requires collaboration of multiple proteins to either promote cell division or stop cell division

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46
Q

What is proto-oncogenes (good genes)?

A

Those genes that promote cell division

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47
Q

What is tumor suppressor genes (good genes)?

A

tells the cell wait a minute it’s not time to divide now

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48
Q

If everything goes ok the cell checks off _________ that are placed in the cell cycle

A

check points

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49
Q

How does the cell go through all the check points?

A
  • If everything goes ok the cell checks off check points that are placed in the cell cycle
    • The first set of proteins makes check one point. G1 check point is checking if the cell is good to divide, also if its time to divide
    • When the cell passes the check point it will replicate its DNA and it needs repair the DNA replication. It will check point G2. When the cell is given the green light to proceed
    • The cell will undergo mitosis. The nuclear material will separate into two daughter cells at the telophase when the mitotic check point happens and check if chromosomes separated, chromatid separated properly
    • Cytokinesis follows
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50
Q

Stage one cancer

A

when the tumor is still in one location and its malignant (stage one)

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51
Q

Stage two cancer

A

when it grows and starts to infect nearby tissue (stage two)

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52
Q

Stange three cancer

A

When it grows and gets into blood lymbh vessles and can travel through the body

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53
Q

Stange fourth cancer

A

when cancer cells re-establish themselves in another location

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54
Q

What are the check points?

A

G1 to check if the cell is good to divide, is it time to divide
-G2Check point two checking if the replication was ok
-M check point to see if chromatid separated properly

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55
Q

What is cell cycle control system?

A

The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed

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55
Q

What is checkpoints?

A

where the cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received

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56
Q

Cancer cells may not need ______ to grow and divide:
-make their own ______

A

growth factors

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57
Q

cancer cells may convey a growth factor’s signal without the presence of _______
-they may have an abnormal _________

A
  1. the growth factor
    2.cell cycle control system
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57
Q

What is Transformation?

A

A normal cell is converted to a cancerous

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58
Q

What is a benign tumor?

A

if abnormal cells remain at the original site

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58
Q

What is Malignant tumor?

A

invade surrounding tissues and can metastasize

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59
Q

What is Metastasize?

A

exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they can form secondary tumors

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60
Q

What is Metastasis?

A

The ability of these cells to spread to other sites in the body

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61
Q

a tumor is form is when

A

cells may reproduce at the wrong time or place

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62
Q

What is HeLa?

A

cells are widely used around the world in cancer labs

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63
Q

Genes that regulate cell growth and programmed cell death

A
  1. Oncogenes-mutated proto-oncogenes
    1. Tumor suppressor gene (TSGs)
      Mutated genes that suppress cell divisions
  2. DNA repair genes-mutated genes of DNA repair (good genes)
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64
Q

which of the following describe the role typical proto-oncogenes have when they are expressed in cells that are not cancerous?

A

They stimulate normal cell growth and division

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65
Q

Which of the following types of mutation would convert a proto-oncogene into an oncogene?

A

a mutation that greatly increases the amount of the proto-oncogene protein

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66
Q
A

are the receivers of the signals from the outside that would stimulate growth by stimulating cell division (grow factors)

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67
Q

What is Ras gene?

A

This is the gene that can be mutated and cause defective that would promote constant pushing of the cell to divide.

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68
Q

rase is for ______

A

oncogenes

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68
Q

Oncogenes are usually ___________

A

dominant

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68
Q

What is p53?

A

is for mutated tumor suppressor genes (cancers reflect environmental insults)

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69
Q

tumor suppressor gene are usually _____

A

recessive-acting mutation

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70
Q

What is which of the following describes the normal function of the P53 gene product?

A

It inhibits the cell cycle

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71
Q

What is Retinoblastoma?

A

this cancer occurs in children. Cancer of the eye

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71
Q

What is DNA repair gene

A

DNA repair gene

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72
Q

wont pass to generation

A

if the first mutation happens in the somatic tissue the cells will reproduce clonally, will have a patch of cancer cells

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72
Q

What is Polypolip?

A

cancer of the colon

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73
Q

wont pass to generation

A

if the first mutation happens in the somatic tissue the cells will reproduce clonally, will have a patch of cancer cells

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74
Q

its passed to the next generation

A

If the first mutation happens in the reproductive germ line. The person will have every mutation cancer cell and will be born with a predisposition to cancer

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75
Q

the somatic non inherited cancer develops after ______

A

age 50

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76
Q

familial cancer have an earlier onset. On average_____________ years old

A

10

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77
Q

What are Skin cancer types?

A

basal skin (should be removed)
-squamous cell (goes a little bit deeper)
-Melanoma (grows fast)

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78
Q

What is ABCDE rule

A

The halves wont match
B is not smooth
C different color
D for diameter
E for evolving

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79
Q

Taxol is an anticancer drug extracted from pacific yew tree. In animal cells. Taxol prevents microtube depolymerization, which interferes with which of the following processes?

A

Chromosome sepraration

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80
Q

What are early Detection?

A

PET: tumor image
Genetic testing: identify mutated genes
Screening large numbers of people: Enzyme tests markers for cancer

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81
Q

How does metastasis work?

A
  1. Cancer cells break away from their original tissue.
  2. The metastasizing cells become attached to the wall of a blood vessel or lymph vessel. They secrete digestive enzymes to create an opening. Then they cross the wall at the breach.
  3. Cancer cells creep or tumble along inside the bloodstream the same way they got in. They start new tumors in new tissues.
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82
Q

Genes that promote cancer for proto-oncogene

A

Oncogenes

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83
Q

Genes that promote cancer for tumor suppressor gene

A

Muted tumor suppressor gene

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84
Q

What is the Function of the membrane

A

is the boundary that separates living cell form often nonliving surroundings of from extracellular space. That separate cell from its environment

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85
Q

membrane creates that boundary the border is has to allow for the cell to _____________and _________ of the multicellular organism or_____

A
  1. uptake things that cell needs
    2.release things that cell either produce for the benefit
  2. the waist
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85
Q

The membrane has to be selectively permeable, allowing some substances to _______and some substances to be ____________

A
  1. cross
    2.blocked from leaving or coming in
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86
Q

What is Transmembrane proteins?

A

protein is inside the cell, the other side of the protein is outside of the cell

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87
Q

What is Selective permeability?

A

allowing some substances to cross it more easily than others

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88
Q

What is Fluid mosaic model?

A

states that a membrane is a fluid structure with a mosaic of various proteins embedded in it

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89
Q

What are Phospholipids?

A

are the most abundant lipid in the plasma membrane

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90
Q

What is amphipathic molecules?

A

Are phospholipids containing hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

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91
Q

Phospholipid, two ________ and a phosphate group are attached to ______

A
  1. fatty acids
  2. glycerol
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92
Q

the two fatty acid tails are _______, but the phosphate group and its attachments from a __________

A

1.hydrophobic
2. hydrophilic head

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93
Q

__________ are the major component of all cell membranes

A

phospholipids

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94
Q

Fatty acids are __________which means that they are afraid of water

A

hydrophobic

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95
Q

the head is _________, which means affinity for water

A

hydrophilic

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96
Q

Hydrophobic, fatty acid tails are inside the _____

A

bilayer

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96
Q

What is Phospholipid bilayer?

A

is constructed in a way that hydrophilic heads are facing outside.

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97
Q

Fluid unsaturated tails ____________

A

prevent packing

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98
Q

Viscous

A

saturated tails packed together

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99
Q

cholesterol within the animal cell membrane

A

Cholesterol reduces membrane fluidity at moderate temperatures, but at low temperatures hinders solidification.

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100
Q

Cholesterol moderates the fluidity of the membrane by hardening in___________

A

colder temperatures

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101
Q

-we have fatty acids that are_________

A

saturated and unsaturated

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102
Q

Saturated fatty acids have the tales straight because of ________-

A

hydrogenation

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103
Q

Unsaturated fatty acids have those__________ therefore they can __________________

A
  1. kinks
    2.boost fluidity and permeability of the plasma membrane
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104
Q

you want to prevent rigid plasma membrane (you ______________ because ____________

A
  1. want to keep their fluidity
  2. that speaks to the plasticity)
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105
Q

If we have very rigid plasma membranes in the arteries, when we exercise and the blood flows faster, __________

A

the blood pressure increases the blood will be hitting the walls of the arteries and if the rigid are stiffed, they can break.

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106
Q

__________ keep the molecules from packing together

A

tails

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107
Q

Cholesterol reduces fluidity at moderate temperature by ______________________________It hinders solidification

A

reducing phospholipid movement; at low temp

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108
Q

The cholesterol promotes fluidity in _________________, reduces fluidity _________________-

A

1.warmer temperatures
2. in colder temperatures

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109
Q

Membranes must be ________to work properly

A

fluid

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110
Q

As temperatures cool, membranes switch from a fluid state to a _______

A

solid state

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111
Q

Membranes rich in _________ fatty acids are more fluid that those rich saturated fatty acids

A

unsaturated

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112
Q

Phospholipids are moving __________

A

around all the time

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113
Q

Small, nonpolar molecules can fit in the opening between___________

A

Phosphate group and glycerol heads

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114
Q

Small, uncharged but polar molecules (H2O is a polar molecule) can fit into the pores between the __________

A

phospholipid bilayer’s hydrophilic part

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115
Q

__________that do not fit in between their heads they will not be allowed to enter

A

Large molecules

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116
Q

_________polar molecules when they are large they will not be allowed to enter

A

Uncharged

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117
Q

_______________ like ions (they are not allowed)

A

Small but charged molecules

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118
Q

_________determine most of the membrane’s specific functions

A

Proteins

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119
Q

Proteins are embedded in the _______

A

fluid matrix

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120
Q

What is Peripheral proteins?

A

are bound to the surface of the membrane

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121
Q

What is Integral proteins?

A

penetrate the hydrophobic core integral proteins that span the membrane

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122
Q

What are the Six major functions of membrane proteins

A

1.Transport
2.Enzymatic function
3.Signal transduction
4.Cell- cell recognition
5.Intercellular joining
6.In animal cells we have extracellular matrix

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123
Q

What is Transport?

A

we can have proteins that are like hallways that are channels that allow for transport.) or (we can have proteins that are related to transport, but they need to open or close to allow things in or out)

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124
Q

What is Enzymatic function?

A

Enzymatic function (the proteins embedded in the plasma membrane can have a specific shape that matches the substrate and they have an enzymatic function)

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125
Q

What is Signal transduction

A

(cells need some kind of recognition) they can have plasmas membranes that are serving as the receptor to receive the signal. Those would be involved in signal transduction pathway and they are called receptors

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126
Q

What is Cell- cell recognition?

A

We also have proteins that are just like antennas sticking out and they are serving self-recognition part. That antenna can be recognized by another protein in the surrounding cells and that would be the way they communicate

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127
Q

What is Intercellular joining?

A

Proteins can also provide a kind of junctions that are joining cells together .

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128
Q

What is extracellular ?

A

In animal cells we have extracellular matrix where the proteins have other molecules attached to them some kind of fibers, collagen-based and so on. That provide that attachment of one cell to another

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129
Q

What is Cells recognize?

A

by binding to surface molecules, often containing carbohydrates, on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane

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130
Q
  • Membrane carbohydrates may be covalently bonded to_________ forming _________ or more commonly to _______forming ______
A

1.to lipids
2.glycolipids
3.proteins
4.glycoproteins

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131
Q

Carbohydrates on the external side of the plasma membrane vary among _________, _________ and even ______ in an individual

A

species, individuals,
cell types

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132
Q

Receptors are very important in __________, but also sometimes__________, because pathogens can get into the cell if the part of the pathogen body called _______________

A
  1. receiving signals
  2. blocking pathogens
    3.antigen matches the shape of the receptor, like viruses
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133
Q

How is HIV blocked into cells?

A

HIV can infect a cell that has CCR5 on its surface, as in most people. HIV cannot infect a cell lacking CCR5 on its surface, as in resistant individuals.

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134
Q

The plasma membrane is found inside_______

A

the cell

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135
Q

In _____and in the _______ apparatus so the distribution of proteins and ________, ___________ and everything is determine when the membrane is built.

A

ER
Golgi
Proteins
lipids
Carbohydrates

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136
Q

the membrane is built by _______ and _________apparatus. The built membrane is then in the form of __________ traveling to the __________ and they fuses with the _________

A

ER
Golgi
vesicles
plasma membrane
plasma membrane

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137
Q

A cell must exchange materials with its ___________, a process controlled by the _________

A

surroundings
plasma membrane

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138
Q

Plasma membranes are selectively _________, regulating the cell’s __________

A
  1. permeable
    2.molecular traffic
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139
Q

selective permeability refers to _______

A

Transport

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140
Q

What is diffusion?

A

If I have molecules that can pass through the membrane that can pass through the membrane, a passive transport based on chemistry and physics

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141
Q

The cell might need all the other ___________that are not allows to __________. Those molecules are transported mainly by _____________.

A

1.molecules
2. diffuse
3.active transport

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142
Q

Transport permeability of the ___________we have to differentiate between ________ and ____________.

A
  1. lipid bilayer
  2. passive transport
    3.active transport
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143
Q

Passive transport is _________is the type of _________ when the molecules can pass through the membrane because of the ______ of the openings and also the ______.

A
  1. diffusion
    2.passive transport
    3.size
    4.charges
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144
Q

What is Diffusion?

A

is the tendency of molecules to spread evenly in the available space. That refers to diffusion that can happen without a membrane being present.

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145
Q

What is an example of Diffusion?

A

I have perfumes and I spray them in the room even if somebody is on the other side of the room, after a while that person will smell the perfume

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146
Q

the movement of molecules is always down the ____________

A

concentration gradient

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147
Q

What is concentration gradient?

A

the difference in concentration of a substance from one area to another

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148
Q

No work must be done to move substances __________________because the molecules move by diffusion

A

1.down the concentration gradient
2. move by diffusion

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149
Q

the molecules from high concentration will move to the areas of _____________

A

lower concentration

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150
Q

when I talk about the movement of water we talk about diffusion of water called _______

A

osmosis

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151
Q

What is Osmosis?

A

is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

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152
Q

Water diffuses across a membrane from the region of ___________ to the region of ___________

A

1.lower solute concentration
2.high solute concentration

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153
Q

solute will always move ___________

A

down the concentration gradient

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154
Q

from the lower solute concentration to the region of higher solute concentration. After a while I’ll have ___________

A

uneven levels of solution in my two arm dish

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155
Q

when I have a low concentration of sugar solute, I have ________water molecules free to ________. When I have high concentration of sugar , that sugar ___________. I have less water molecules available here.

A
  1. more
    2.move
    3.binds water
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156
Q

water will move from higher concentration of water to a __________ of water

A

lower concentration

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157
Q

Water also moves down the __________

A

concentration gradient

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158
Q

If I have concentrations of different molecules on one side higher than on the other side and if that molecule can move, it will move ______________________________________________

A

down the concentration gradient from high to low

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159
Q

the concentration of the solute as a reference point water will move from _________

A

one five molar solution

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160
Q

when I have a cell put into the environment that has the same concentration of chemicals water probably moves ________, but there is no net movement, this is an_____________

A

1.in and out
2. isotonic solution

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161
Q

What is Isotonic solution?

A

is a solution where the solute concentration is the same in the environment as it is in the solution

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162
Q

If I put a cell in the concentration higher than inside the cell water will move __________trying to________ the environment. The content of water inside the cell will______. The cell will ______.

A

1.out of the cell
2. dilute
3. decrease
4.shrivel

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163
Q

If I put this cell in the environment that has a lower concentration of solutes that inside the cell, then water will ___________

A

move into the cell.

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164
Q

-animals because they don’t have cell wall will uptake that water, uptake water (water will diffuse in, its not the will of the cell) to the point that the cell would _______, we call it ______

A

1.bust
2.lyses

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165
Q

If I have a plant cell, that cell will limit the diffusion of water, osmosis, by its cell wall. The plant will be normal, we say__________.

A

turgid

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166
Q

Isotonic solution for red blood cells is ________sodium chloride. Blood, our physiological fluids have _________ of sodium chloride

A

0.9%

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167
Q

low salt concentration the red blood cells will look like a _____, will have this _______ shape like a ____________

A

disc
donut without a hole

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168
Q

why do you feel thirst after playing in a pool for a while?

A

water from your body escaped you, was trying to dilute the ocean or dilute the pool.

169
Q

What is Flaccid?

A

this is when the cell is losing and getting the same amount of water. It might look a little bit wilted, but is not to the point of plasmolysis

170
Q

What is isotonic solution?

A

solute concentration is the same as that inside the cell; no net water movement across the plasma membrane.

171
Q

What is Hypertonic solution?

A

solute concentration is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water

172
Q

What is hypotonic solution?

A

solute concentration is less than that inside the cell; call gains water

173
Q

red blood cells and water it is not an __________because pure water is ________to red blood cells

A

1.isotonic solution
2.hypotonic

174
Q

A balloon with water that water in the bucket will be________to the balloons with water inside

A

isotonic

175
Q

Water transport occurs by ________. It is a passive transport and its due to physics due to the molecule’s tendency to spread evenly in the given space

A
  1. diffusion
    2.pread evenly
176
Q

What is Transport proteins?

A

allow passage of hydrophilic substance across the membrane

177
Q

what is Channel proteins?

A

some transport proteins have a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions can use as a tunnel. This will allowed water molecules inside the cell that the diffusion will allow

178
Q

What is Aquaporins?

A

channel proteins facilitate the passage of water

179
Q

what is Facilitated diffusion?

A

transport proteins speed the passive movement of molecules across the plasma membrane

180
Q

What is Aquaporins?

A

are integral membrane proteins that serve as channels in the transfer of water, and in some cases, small solutes across the membrane

181
Q

What is Ion channels ?

A

that open or close in response to a stimulus (gated channels)

182
Q

What is diffusion?

A

the mechanism of transport, so it is passive

183
Q

What does phospholipid bilayer do?

A

prevents large molecules or charged molecules like ions from diffusing directly across the membrane without the use of a channel protein

184
Q

passive transport that refers to diffusion across the membrane, involves _________

A

membranes

185
Q

Facilitated diffusion involves____________

A

proteins

186
Q

diseases related to the malfunctioning transport

A

1.hypercholesterolemia
2.Cystic fibrosis

187
Q

What is hypercholesterolemia

A

The lack of receptors

188
Q

What is Cystic fibrosis?

A

lack of proper transport of sodium chloride outside of the cell (water accumulates in those cells. Mucus is created.

189
Q

Active transport uses _______to move _________against their _______

A

1.energy
2.solutes
3.gradients

190
Q

That active transport requires energy that is provided in the form of ______.

A

ATP

191
Q

Active transport allows cells to ______________

A

maintain concentration gradients that differ from their surroundings

192
Q

In animals we have sodium-potassium:

A

Is one type of active transport system. High concentration of sodium outside or potassium depends on what we’re talking about. The will still put sodium ions outside.

193
Q

Active transport requires ________

A

input energy

194
Q

passive by diffusion and by facilitated diffusion involving _________________

A

proteins and active involving proteins

195
Q

Ions they are ______, they are ________ and the cell might ________

A

1.small
2.charged
3.need them

196
Q

What is Membrane potential?

A

is the voltage difference across a membrane

197
Q

Voltage is created by _________

A

differences in the distribution of positive and negative ions

198
Q

What is Electrochemical gradient?

A

two combined forces, collectively, drives the diffusion of ions across a membrane

199
Q

A chemical force

A

(the ions concentration gradient)

200
Q

An electrical force

A

(the effect of the membrane potential on the ion’s movement)

201
Q

electrogenic pump is a?

A

transport protein that generated voltage across a membrane ( 50 to 200 mV)

202
Q

The ______________is the major electrogenic pump of animal cells

A

sodium-potassium pump

203
Q

The main electrogenic pump of plants, fungi, and bacteria is a __________

A

proton pump

204
Q

pumps allow for the movement of ions. This is_________

A

active transport

205
Q

Large molecules are transported by ____________

A

cotransport

206
Q

What is Cotransport?

A

Occurs when active transport of a solute indirectly drives transport of another solute

207
Q

Plants commonly use the __________________________to drive active transport of nutrients into the cell

A

gradient of hydrogen ions generated by proton pumps

208
Q

What is co-transport?

A

hydrogen ions will drag big molecules with them.

209
Q

Bulk transport requires energy so its _______________. It requires building vesicles if we want to remove things this is called____________-

A

1.active transport
2. exocytosis

210
Q

Vesical contains the chemicals that need to be put _________. The vesicle comes to plasma membrane, fuses with it and by that releases the content. By the same mechanism we can have an update of molecules in large amounts this is called __________

A

1.outside
2.Endocytosis

211
Q

What is Endocytosis?

A

the cell takes in macromolecules by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane

212
Q

Endocytosis is a reversal of _____________

A

exocytosis, involving different proteins

213
Q

Food is moving by ____________are also moved into the cell by__________

A

1.endocytosis, antibodies
2. endocytosis

214
Q

In animal cells what happens in isotonic

A

The blood cell has a balance of H2O in and H2O out and its a normal blood cell.

214
Q

In Animal cell Hypotonic means?

A

Lysed happens and the blood cell over fills with H20 and burst.

215
Q

What happens in animal cells in hypertonic

A

Blood Cell shriveled beacuse to much H2O out

216
Q

In plant cells Turgid is when

A

Is when water stays in and its normal

217
Q

In plant cells Flaccid is when

A

Water is coming in and out of the plant cell

218
Q

In plant cells plasmolyzed is when

A

To much water comes out of the cell

219
Q

The difference between stem cells and cancer cells?

A

Stem cells
1. Control cell cycle
2.can differentiate
3. do not adopt function
Cancer cells
1. No control of cell cycle
2. can not differentiate
3. do not adopt function
4. May spread

220
Q

Which of the following statement correctly describes characteristics of adult stem cells and other cells isolated from the same tissue at the same time?
A. The two cell types have different patterns of DNA methylation.
B. The non-stem cells have fewer repressed genes than the adult stem cells
C. The adult stem cells have different DNA Than the non-stem cells.
D. The two Kinds of cell have virtually identical gene expression patterns in microarrays.

A

A

221
Q

Which of the following processes is used to convert adult cells into pluripotent stem cells (iPS)
A. Cytoplasm from embryonic cells is injected into the adult cells
B. A retrovirus is used to introduce four specific master regulatory genes
C. The nucleus of an embryonic cell is used to replace the nucleus of an adult cell.
D. The adult stem cells are fused with embryonic cells

A

B

222
Q

The cloning of Dolly the sheep is an example of which of the following processes?
A. Isolation of stem cells from a lamb embryo and production of a zygote equivalent
B. separation of an early stage sheep blastula into separate cells, one of which was incubated in a surrogate sheep
C. replication and dedifferentiation of adult stem cells from sheep bone marrow
D. transfer of an adult cell’s nucleus into an enucleated sheep egg, followed by incubation in a surrogate.

A

D

223
Q

Reproductive cloning of human embryos is generally considered unethical. However, on the subject of therapeutic cloning, there is a wider divergence of opinion. Which of the following statements provides the best argument in support of therapeutic cloning?

A. A clone that lives until the blastocyst stage does not yet have human DNA
B. Cloning to produce stem cells relies on a different initial procedure than reproductive cloning.
C. Cloning to produce embryonic stem cells may lead to great medical benefits for many
D. the use of adult stem cells likely to produce more cell types than the use of embryonic stem cells.

A

c

224
Q

Which of the following describes the role typical proto-oncogenes have when they are expressed in cells that are not cancerous?
A. They enhance signaling from growth factor receptors
B. they inhibit differentiation
C. they suppress tumor growth
D. They stimulate normal cell growth and division

A

D

225
Q

Which of the following types of mutation would convert a proto- oncogene into an oncogene?
A. A mutation that blocks transcription of the proto- oncogene
B. a deletion of most of the proto-oncogene coding sequence
C. A mutation that greatly reduces the stability of a proto-oncogene mRNA
D. A mutation that greatly increases the amount of the proto-oncogene protein

A

D

226
Q

Which of the following describes the normal function of p53 gene product?
A. It inhibits the cell cycle
B. it allows cells to pass on mutation due to DNA damage
C. It causes cells to reduce expression of genes involved in DNA repair
D. It slows down the rate of DNA replication by interfering with binding of DNA polymerase

A

A

227
Q

Taxol is an anticancer drug extracted from the pacific yew tree. In animal cell, Taxol prevents microtubule depolymerization, which interferes with which of the following processes?
A. Centriole duplication
B. Chromosome condensation
C. cytokinesis
D. Chromosome separation

A

D

228
Q

Which of the following statements best explains how the membranes in winter wheat are able to remain fluid in extremely cold temperatures?
A. The membranes contain an increased proportion of glycolipids.
B. The membranes contain an increased proportion of unsaturated phospholipids
C. The membranes contain a reduced proportion of cholesterol molecules
D. The membranes contain a reduced proportion of hydrophobic proteins.

A

B

229
Q

Which of the following types of molecules are least likely to diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer of a cell membrane?
A. Small ions
B. small hydrophobic molecules
C. Carbon dioxide
D. Large hydrophobic molecules

A

A

230
Q

Which of the following cellular processes includes all of the others?
A. osmosis
B. Transport of an ion down its electrochemical gradient
C. passive transport
D. facilitated diffusion

A

C

231
Q

Celery stalks that are immersed in fresh water for several hours become stiff. Which of the following statements best explains the observation that similar stalks left in a 0.15M salt solution become limp?
A. The fresh water and the salt solution are both hypertonic to the cells of the celery stalks
B. The fresh water is hypotonic and the salt solution is hypertonic to the cells of the celery stalks
C. The fresh water is hypertonic and the salt solution is hypotonic to the cells of the celery stalks
D. The fresh water is isotonic and the salt solution is hypertonic to the cells of the celery stalks.

A

B

232
Q

Look at google slide question one

A
233
Q

which of the following is true of embryonic stem cells but not of adult stem cells?
A. They can differentiate into different cell types.
B. They are easy to find
C. they can continue to replicate
D. They can provide information about the process of gene regulation
E. One aim of using them is to provide cells for repair of diseased tissue

A

B

234
Q

reproductive cloning of human embryos is generally considered unethical. However, about therapeutic cloning, there is a wider divergence of opinion. Which of the following statements provides a likely explanation?
A. The use of adult stem cells is likely to produce more cell types than the embryonic stem cells.
B. Cloning to produce embryonic stem cells may lead to great medical benefits for many.
C. Cloning to produce stem cells relies on a different initial procedure than reproductive cloning.
D. A clone that lives until the blastocyst stage does not yet have human DNA.
E. A clone mutates very fast

A

B

235
Q

A phospholipid bilayer with equal amounts of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids displays a specific permeability to glucose. What effect will increasing the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in the bilayer have on the membranes permeability to glucose?
A. Permeability to glucose will increase.
B. Permeability to glucose will decrease
C. Permeability to glucose will stay the same
D. Permeability will decrease initially then increase as the bilayer fills with glucose
E. Permeability will increase initially then decrease as the bilayer fills with glucose

A

A

236
Q

Cells from advanced malignant tumors often have very abnormal chromosomes and an abnormal number of chromosomes. Which of the following best explains the association between malignant tumors and chromosomal abnormalities?
A. Cancer cells are no longer density- dependent
B. cancer cells are no longer anchorage-dependent
C. Cell cycle checkpoints are not in place to stop cells with chromosome abnormalities.
D. Transformation introduces new chromosomes into cells

A

C

237
Q

Which of the following statements about cancer is not true?
A. Cancer is very often associated with problems at the G1 checkpoint
B. For a tumor to be defined as cancer it must first metastasize
C. Cancer cells often have a defective form of the tumor repressor p53
D. Many cancer cells have defective form of the signal transduction protein Ras that do not become deactivated.

A

B

238
Q

You have just discovered an organism that lives in extremely cold environments. Which of the following would you predict to be true about the phospholipids in its membranes, compared to phospholipids in the membranes of organisms that live in warmer environments?
A. The membrane phospholipids of cold-adapted organisms will have longer hydrocarbon tails
B. The membrane phospholipids of cold-adapted organisms will have more saturated hydrocarbon tails.
C. The membrane phospholipids of cold-adapted organisms will have more unsaturated hydrocarbon tails
D. The membrane phospholipids of cold-adapted organisms will have less unsaturated hydrocarbon tails.

A

c

239
Q

Which of the following means of transport would most likely be used for moving a medium - sized molecule ( like a monosaccharide or an amino acid) from a low concentration on the outside of a cell to a high concentration on the inside of a cell?

A. facilitated diffusion through an ion channel protein
B. facilitated diffusion through a transporter
C. active transport through a pump protein
D. passive transport

A

c

240
Q

What preserves the structure integrity of phospholipids bilayers?
A. peptide bonds form between the phosphate groups of the phospholipids.
B. sugars associated with the cell membrane covalently cross-link
C. hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions between nearby phospholipids
D. Van der waals interaction between the glycerol molecule and fatty acids of a single phospholipid

A

C

241
Q

What is Metabolism

A

is the totality of an organisms chemical reaction

242
Q

An organism’s metabolism transforms _______and _________, subject to the laws of thermodynamics

A

matter
energy

243
Q

Metabolism is organized at every level of life into ___________

A

Metabolic pathways

244
Q

What is Metabolic pathway?

A

begins with a specific molecule and ends with a product
Each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme

245
Q

What is Catabolic pathway?

A

release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds

246
Q

Cellular respiration, the breakdown of _______in the presence of ______, is an example of a pathway of catabolism

A

glucose
oxygen
catabolism

247
Q

What is Catabolic reaction

A

occur when large organic molecules are broken down into smaller, simpler ones, releasing energy in the process.

248
Q

Smal molecules and we bring them together we invest in that reaction that requires energy. This is __________

A

anabolic reaction

249
Q

What is Anabolic reaction?

A

involve the joining of smaller molecules into larger ones. Polymers from monomers

250
Q

The synthesis of protein from amino acids is an example of __________

A

anabolism

251
Q

What is Bioenergetic?

A

is the study of how organisms manage their energy resources

252
Q

What is Energy?

A

is the capacity to cause change

253
Q

Energy when we are moving is described as ___________

A

kinetic energy

254
Q

When we are climbing up that’s _________

A

kinetic energy

255
Q

I train my body to run a marathon and I stand on the start line I have the potential to run that marathon. So I have enough accumulated energy in my body in different forms that now I have the ability, potential to move and run the marathon. That’s an example of ___________

A

potential energy

256
Q

What is Kinetic energy?

A

is energy associated with motion

257
Q

What is Heat (Thermal energy)?

A

is kinetic energy associated with random movement of atoms or molecules

258
Q

What is Chemical energy?

A

is potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction

259
Q

Energy can be ___________ from one from to another

A

converted

260
Q

_________is the energy that is capture in the chemical bond

A

chemical energy

261
Q

When I break that bond, I release the energy. Before I break the bond, I have potential of doing work with that energy released from that ______________

A

chemical bond

262
Q

A living organism is an open system. So we cannot have 100% of energy transformation without some losses. That loss is usually ___________

A

thermal energy heat

263
Q

What is Thermodynamics

A

is the study of energy transformation

264
Q

First law of thermodynamics says that ____________

A

energy can be transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed

265
Q

The second law of thermodynamic says that _____________.

A

every transfer of energy increases disorder.

266
Q

The first law is also called the _____________

A

principle of conservation of energy

267
Q

The second law called the __________

A

law of entropy

268
Q

When I have a substrate and I break it to products, and I release energy that energy exit the molecules so that is an _________

A

exergonic reaction

269
Q

if I need energy to have a reaction, I need to invest. This is endergonic when the energy goes into the product. This is an _____________

A

anabolic reaction.

270
Q

What is exergonic reaction?

A

Proceeds with a net release of free energy and is spontaneous

271
Q

What is Endergonic reaction?

A

absorbs free energy from its surrounding and is nonspontaneous

272
Q

Exergonic reactions describes ________

A

catabolic reactions

273
Q

endergonic reactions described _______

A

anabolic reactions

274
Q

cells are not in equilibrium because they are ______________

A

open systems

275
Q

A cell does three main kinds of work:

A

.Chemical
.Transport
.Mechanical

276
Q

What is Energy coupling?

A

The use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one

277
Q

_______–powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions

A

ATP

278
Q

What is ATP (adenosine triphosphate)?

A

is the cell’s energy shuttle

279
Q

ATP is composed of ribose________, _____________, and ___________

A

ribose (a sugar), adenine (a nitrogenous base), three phosphate groups

280
Q

The energy loaded molecule has three __________.

A

phosphate groups

281
Q

Energy depleted molecule is adenosine diphosphate with__________.

A

two phosphate groups

282
Q

Energy is carried In this chemical bond between the second and the third __________.

A

phosphate group

283
Q

ATP are powered by ___________

A

hydrolysis of ATP

284
Q

If I have the ATP coming to the reaction, that phosphate group is transferred to _________________ and promote synthesis. In this process, whenever we have ____________________ we have the water needed for the reaction to happen.

A

another molecule and activates that molecule so it can adopt another molecule

hydrolysis

285
Q

When I have the ATP with the phosphate group from the tail is removed __________ is produced.

A

water

286
Q

What is phosphorylation process?

A

When the third phosphate group is brought to ADP

287
Q

APT can ______, it can deliver the _____________ to membrane to the transmembrane protein that now is activated and can ______________

A

transfer
phosphate group
change shape

288
Q

Phosphorylate the motor protein that will now be activated and will move along the _________. Work in life is often done by phosphorylation of molecules. Phosphorylation activates molecules by changing its ___________. So Know it can preform the work. The same goes for transport or mechanical and for the chemical work of_________

A

motor protein
cytoskeletal track
shape
ATP

289
Q

ATP goes to _________ water is needed. Energy is released

A

ADP

290
Q

As I consume that dinner I would put __________________________ in my body that can broken down in my digestive system, As they are broken down in my digestive system and energy is released. ATP captures that energy and now becomes _________. After dinner you have a lot of energy, you go running. As I run the body uses the energy from food to transform it into___________ So as I run my ADP becomes _________. Its moving that phosphate group to my motor proteins so you lose ATP

A

Complex molecules
triphosphate
kinetic energy
ATP

291
Q

What is Catalyst ?

A

is a chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction

292
Q

What is Enzyme?

A

is a catalytic protein

293
Q

Enzyme catalysis a number of__________. They are proteins because they catalyze, they are called ___________

A

reactions
catalytic proteins

294
Q

Enzymes as proteins work by _________ interactions. They have to fit the _________, so they can make the work.

A

key and lock
substrates perfectly

295
Q

_____________________, that we call the active site.

A

The key and lock interaction is essential for the proper function of proteins. Only part of it has to match the substate

296
Q

if the active site of the enzyme protein matches the ________________ the enzyme can preform the action

A

substrate by key and lock interaction

297
Q

Enzymes do not get used up in the reaction. They can complete the reaction and then go and act on another_____________.

A

substate molecule

298
Q

catalyze reactions by lowering the activation energy. Every reaction needs the_______. Catalyze lower the __________of energy needed to do the reaction

A

initial input
initial investment

299
Q

The initial energy needed to start a chemical reaction is called _________, or activation energy (E A)

A

the free energy of activation
activation energy (E A)

300
Q

Activation energy is often supplied in the form of __________________

A

heat from the surroundings

301
Q

The reactant that an enzyme acts on is called the _____________

A

enzyme’s substrate

302
Q

The enzyme binds to its substrate, forming an __________________

A

enzyme-substate complex

303
Q

The active site is the region on the enzyme where the _________

A

substrate binds

304
Q

Enzymes are _________

A

proteins

305
Q

Lets assume my protein has an active site normally does not have perfect shape for active site, but now I put a ___________ on it and that presence of the _________ creates a perfect shape of the active site.

A

cofactor

306
Q

I have not perfect shape active site, But I can bind another molecule. Another molecule will bind but change the active site completely we are talking about_______________

A

allosteric regulation.

307
Q

When we have a cofactor that allows the enzyme to get the proper shape. Without the cofactor the enzyme will not be able to have a proper shape but we can have instead of a ____________

A

competitive inhibitor

308
Q

What does competitive inhibitor do

A

competitive inhibitor, we can have another molecule that will bind to that regulatory side and it will prevent the enzyme from getting a proper shape

309
Q

Proteins have a 3D dimension. Enzymes can do that 3D folding only when they are in a proper environment and they are very picky about the applicable ___________, the applicable ________

A

temperature
PH

310
Q

Enzymes require temperature for the optimum activity, but not all ___________

A

enzymes require the same temperature

311
Q

What is Cofactors?

A

are nonprotein enzyme helpers are usually in organic metals

312
Q

An organic cofactor called ____________

A

coenzyme

313
Q

coenzymes include ____________

A

vitamins

314
Q

What is Competitive inhibitors?

A

bind to the active site of an enzyme, competing with the substrate

315
Q

What is Noncompetitive inhibitors?

A

bind to another part of an enzyme, causing they enzyme to change shape and making that active site less effective

316
Q

Examples of inhibitors include _________________

A

toxins, poisons, pesticides, and antibiotics that includes pain killers

317
Q

Cellular respiration is called _____________

A

aerobic

318
Q

plants use _______________ for cellular respiration

A

photosynthesis

319
Q

cells use chemical energy stored in organic molecules (_________) to regenerate _______, which power work

A

glucose
ATP

320
Q

Organic matter is broken down into _______________ matter like _________ and __________ in the process of cellular respiration then __________ is made

A

inogranic
cardon dioxide
water
ATP

321
Q

What is Cellular respiration?

A

Harvesting chemical Energy

322
Q

It is called chemical energy because ____________________________________________

A

it is capture in ATP by binding the third phosphate group to the phosphate tail

323
Q

What is Glucose chemical formula

A

C6H1+ 6O2 ——> 6CO2 + 6H2O +ATP

324
Q

when glycolysis happens it happens in the __________ does not require __________

A

cytoplasm
oxygen

325
Q

When we need oxygen that cellar respiration is called __________

A

aerobic

326
Q

Glycolysis refers to breaking down ________ into _____________

A

six carbon molecules
2 pyruvates

327
Q

What does ATP stand for

A

adenosine Triphosphate

328
Q

What are the steps for cellular respiration?

A

Step 1 Glycolysis (does not require oxygen) Its consider Anaerobic. Converts sugar into a more unstable form called two pyruvate
(intermediate step) the 2 pyruvate are transported by active transport into mitochondria. In the Mitochondria pyruvate is oxidized and are converted to 2 acetly CoA. Covent carbon dioxide is released and 2 NADH are produced
Step 2. Krebs cycle (citric Acid cycle (an aerobic process) Corbon dioxide is released we produce 2ATP, 6NADH, and 2FADH2
Step 3. The electrons transport chain and chemiosmosis. It happens in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It requires oxygen. Electrons are transferred from the NADH and FADH2 to protein complexes and electron carriers. The electrons are used to generate a proton gradient as protons are pumped across to the intermembrane space. This generates an electrical and chemical gradient. The protons travel down their electrochemical gradient through a portion of the ATP synthase, to make ATP. Oxygen comes and combines with two hydrogens and you get water and last ATP

329
Q

Glucose is broken down to make?

A

ATP

330
Q

First step Glycolysis net yield form

A

2 pyruvate and 2ATP molecules and 2 NADH

331
Q

What is NADH

A

Is a coenzyme, and it has the ability to transfer electrons, which will be very useful in making ATP

332
Q

What is FADH2

A

FADH2 is also a coenzyme, like NADH, and it will also assist in transferring electrons

333
Q

At the end how much ATP do we have?

A

30-32

334
Q

Why does glycolysis happen

A
335
Q

glycolysis happen in

A

cytoplasm

336
Q

Glucose makes pyruvate and

A

2ATP and 2NADH

337
Q

Moving to mitochondria pyruvate

A

Acetyl CoA
2NADH
2 CO2

338
Q

CAC Acetyl CoA make

A

4CO2
2ATP
6NADH

339
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation needs O2 to

A

e- makes H2O, 26-28 ATP

340
Q

Cellular Respiration with inorganic and organic lables.

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 organic = 6CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP inorganic

341
Q

What is Photosynthesis?

A

is the reaction that feeds all organisms. Feeds us, feeds animals and it feeds plants.

341
Q

Photosynthesis is driven by _______

A

light

342
Q

Synthesis refers to _____________

A

making things

343
Q

When we talk about photosynthesis we talk about making _______________________________________.
I have CO2 in the air and with the energy harvested from the sun, I build __________ and I build _________

A

organic matter from an inorganic matter
organic molecules
glucose

344
Q

Photosynthesis is for ________ and cellular respiration is for ___________

A

plants, plants and animals

345
Q

Photosynthesis Equation

A

6CO2 + 6H2O —–LIGHT ENERGY—-> C6H12O6+ 6O2

346
Q

What is Photosynthesis?

A

is the process that converts solar energy into chemical energy

347
Q

The organisms that can photosynthesize are called _______because they use solar energy they are also called ___________. We can use them to produce alternative fuel energy like algae

A

autotrophs
photoautotrophs

348
Q

What is Autotrophs?

A

sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other organisms

349
Q

Autotrophs are the producers of the ________, producing organic molecules from ______and other inorganic molecules

A

biosphere
CO2

350
Q

_________ are heterotrophs

A

Humans

351
Q

What is Heterotrophs?

A

obtain their organic material from other organisms

352
Q

Heterotrophs are the consumers of the biosphere, including _____________

A

decomposers

353
Q

Almost all heterotrophs, including humans, depend on________ for food and __________

A

photoautotrophs and O2

354
Q

Photosynthesis converts light energy to make organic matters, so light energy is transformed into chemical energy that is captured in the chemical bonds of molecules. That is possible by the _______________________

A

pigment, chlorophyll.

355
Q

What is Chloroplasts?

A

The sites of photosynthesis in plants

356
Q

Chlorophyll is in______________

A

chloroplast

357
Q

Chloroplasts have a double membrane they have a jelly-like structure like mitochondria now its called ____________ and they have a stack of disks, _________.

A

stroma
thylakoids

358
Q

The pigment is located in the membranes of those ___________ disks.

A

thylakoid

359
Q

When you look at the cross-section of a leaf in plants you will notice that there are openings called ______. This is the mouth of the plant.

A

stomata

360
Q

This is where the carbon dioxide is diffuses in and oxygen diffuses out.

A

Stomata

361
Q

Stomata diffuse because there is lower concentration of ______, so CO2 from the air will go into the cell and photosynthesis produces______ so there is a higher concentration inside so oxygen diffuses out and that’s what we need for breathing

A

CO2 inside
oxygen

362
Q

The site of photosynthesis are chloroplasts. But going to the largest structure. There is a part of the leaf where the cells have multiple chloroplasts that part is called the____________

A

mesophyll

363
Q

_________ is an anatomical part of the leaf where the most intensive photosynthesis takes place

A

Mesophyll

364
Q

A typical mesophyll cell has _________chloroplasts

A

30-40

365
Q

Leaves appear green because_____________

A

chlorophyll reflects and transmits green light

366
Q

What are the steps for photosynthesis?

A
  1. capture light from the sun. The molecules are called pigments. The pigment is called chlorophyll found in the chloroplast. Pigment is inside the thylakoid. Light and water. Water is then split and Oxygen comes out and we make ATP and NADPH and all that is happening in the stroma
  2. carbon dioxide and and ATP and NADPH enter the Calvin cycle. it is taken in by pores called stomata
    the fix carbon dioxide and ATP and NADPH makes glucose
367
Q

The light independent reaction is also called

A

Calvin cycle and dark reaction

368
Q

light dependent reaction happens in the

A

stroma

369
Q

Reduce NADP+___________

A

to NADPH

370
Q

Generate ATP from _____ by photophosphorylation

A

ADP

371
Q

Some are being shuttled by the electron buses, but in general , they are passed through the electron transport chain. We have______________

A

photosystem II and photosystem I.

372
Q
  • The first one is photosystem ___
A

II

373
Q

What is Primary electron acceptor?

A

in the reaction center accepts an excited electron from chlorophyll a

374
Q

Photosystem II (PS II) functions first ______________

A

the numbers reflect order of discovery) and is best at absorbing a wavelength of 680 nm (red)

375
Q

The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS II is called __________

A

P680

376
Q

photosystem I (PS I) is best at absorbing a ___________

A

wavelength of 700 nm

377
Q

The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS I is called _____________

A

P700 (far-red)

378
Q

Each electron falls down an electron transport chain from the primary electron acceptor of PS I to the _________

A

protein ferredoxin (Fd)

379
Q

PS 1 is loading buses which is ____________

A

NADPH

380
Q

Then we have CAM plants and CAM plants don’t use different location but different time. SO they would absorb ________at night when it is cooler and then they will go through the reaction with the close ___________ because they have sufficient CO2 accumulated. That would be a pineapple for example.

A

CO2
stomata

381
Q

he fight-or -flight response is triggered by a signaling molecule called

A

epinephrine

382
Q

We have an increase in the metabolic rate driven by ____________, adrenaline. That increases blood pressure, increases breathing and muscles are supplied with a lot of ___________ and we can perform.

A

adrenal glands
glucose

383
Q

long-term stress different parts of our _________are working now. _________instead of the ___________

A

adrenal glands
Cortex
medulla.

384
Q

They release ___________ that are acidifying our bodies. So now we can have increasing blood pressure, but that would be long term that is devastating the body. Our immune system breaks down, is suppressed

A

glucocorticoids

385
Q

external signals are converted to responses within the cell: Microbes provide a _____________of the role of cell signaling in the evolution of life

A

glimpse

386
Q

have an external system for a mating that can attract cells to each other they can ________ and ____________ material. This is observed in a number of organisms, including Bacteria.

A

fuse
exchange genetic

387
Q

Bacteria builds_____ that are like cities where the metabolism of the cell inside can be different than the metabolism of cells outside, although they are genetically identical

A

biofilms

388
Q

Why finish your antibiotic.

A

For the first few days the antibiotic affects bacteria on the surface of the bacterial community and the antibiotic can wipe them out. But inside the community, there are bacteria that were exposed to the antibiotic but didn’t get wiped out by the drug. So if they undergo mutation that mutation would be beneficial for them and we will end up with antibiotic-resistant bacteria

389
Q

Cell to cell communication is essential for _________

A

multicellular organisms

390
Q

The activities of cells, tissues, and organs in different parts of a multicellular organism are coordinated by __________

A

long-distance signals
Cell signaling

391
Q

What is Signal transduction pathway?

A

is a series of steps by which a signal on a cell’s surface is converted into a specific cellular response

392
Q

Signal transduction pathway convert signals on a cell’s surface into _____________

A

cellular responses

393
Q

Animal and plant cells have ___________ that directly connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells

A

cell junctions

394
Q

In local signaling, animal cells may communicate by __________, or ___________

A

direct contact
cell-cell recognition

395
Q

In plants cells we have _________ where the ________can flow

A

plasmodesmata
cytoplasm

396
Q

in animal cells, we have __________ where the cytoplasm can flow. So these are local communications personal talks between two cells facilitated by __________of the body of two cells

A

gap junctions
direct contact

397
Q

we can also have like a private talk between two cells. They talk to each other through __________ that is still _______________but based on the _________ recognition. Mostly ________ cells can talk like this. They can have a ___________. We can have_____________ also by release of signaling molecules

A

receptors
local signaling
cell to cell
animals
private conversations
local signaling

398
Q

Animal cells communicate using __________, messenger molecules that travel only short distances

A

local regulators (local signaling)

399
Q

Now we are releasing signaling molecules to the environment there is no direct contact between the __________ of this conversation.

A

participants

400
Q

So we can have a cell that secretes a signal and that signal affect cell nearby that is called _______

A

paracrine signaling.

401
Q

We can also have ____________ that is a specific type of signaling because it involves a _________ This happens between nerve cells, so we have mixture of electric impulses coming to the synaptic gap being transformed into a chemical signal by _________________.The presence of ____________ triggers the electric impulse in the ______________

A

synaptic signaling
neurotransmitter
neurotransmitter
neurotransmitter
receiving cell

402
Q

if we use drugs that prevent absorption of the ______________ fast by the cell bringing the signal. _________________ lag behind in the class and stimulate the brain a little bit longer. We can developed tolerance to this prolong presence of __________________.

A

neurotransmitter

403
Q

Animals and pants use chemicals called___________.

A

hormones

404
Q

endocrine signaling-specialized animal cells release ___________, which travels via the ___________ to other cells

A

hormone molecules
circulatory system

405
Q

plant growth regulators- travel in vessels or by _________

A

diffusion

406
Q

long-distance signaling it is ___________in animals this is called the_____________ and animals release hormones. But plants also release hormones we called it ___________

A

chemical signaling
endocrine system
plant growth regulators

407
Q

blood vessels transport hormones in animals and _____________________ if they have proper receptors, can get the signal.

A

receiving cells

408
Q

In plants, the signal travels through vessels. There are special network of tubes in the plant’s ________ and __________, which are responsible for the systemic distribution of plant hormones

A

xylem and phloem

409
Q

when the signal arrives at the cell it has to be _______________ received by _______ sometimes that binding requires always binding requires a perfect match between the _________ and the _____. Activation of the receptor, usually by

A

uptaken,
receptor
signaling molecule
receptor

410
Q

Signal transduction pathways have three elements.

A

Reception
transduction
Response

411
Q

What is Reception?

A

A signal molecule binds to a receptor protein, causing it to change shape

412
Q

A shape change in a receptor is often the initial transduction of the signal

A
413
Q

receptors usually sitting on the plasma membrane. We can also have intracellular receptors

A
414
Q

We can have communication local by direct contact or by the chemical signal

A
415
Q

Direct contact can be a cell surface to the cell surface. In plants we have plasmodesmata. By touching cells in plants we have plasmodesmata in animals we have junction

A
416
Q

the surface of plant cells is covert by cell walls and the surface of animal cells is covered by the extracellular matrix

A
417
Q

Local signaling can involve chemicals that are released into a nearby environment and they work in plants and animals and that is called paracrine signaling

A
418
Q

we can also have synaptic signaling present in animals because of the nervous system, where the electric impulse brought by the neuron is transformed into a chemical signal in the synaptic cleft in the form of neurotransmitters.

A
419
Q

in general, we have two types of hormones in animals, steroid-based and protein-based

A
420
Q
A
421
Q
A
422
Q
A
423
Q
A
424
Q
A
425
Q
A
426
Q
A
427
Q
A
428
Q
A
429
Q
A

Biology 60 (5 decks)

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