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biochem > exam 4 > Flashcards

exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

what is metabolism?

A

sum of all of the chemical rxns of occuring in the body

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2
Q

what is catabolism?

A

breakdown of larger molecules into smaller ones, releases energy

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3
Q

anabolism is…

A

the synthesis of larger molecules from smaller ones, requires energy

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4
Q

oxidation-reduction rxns are those in which electrons are transferred from…

A

a donor to an acceptor

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5
Q

oxidation is the…

A

loss of electrons

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6
Q

reducing agent is…

A

the substance that loses the electrons

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7
Q

reduction is…

A

the gain of electrons

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8
Q

oxidizing agent is the…

A

substance that gains the electrons

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9
Q

what is carbon in its most reduced form?

A

alkane

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10
Q

carbon in its most oxidized form…

A

CO2 (final product of catabolism)

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11
Q

NAD+ is an…

A
  • important coenzyme
  • two electron oxidizing agent
  • reduced to NADH
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12
Q

FAD is a…

A
  • biological oxidizing agent
  • protons and electrons are accepted by FAD
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13
Q

what is a central theme in metabolism?

A

coupling of energy-producing and energy-requiring reactions

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14
Q

can food energy be used directly?

A

no - must be shuttled into easily accessible forms of chemical energy

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15
Q

what are high energy bonds?

A

bonds that can release convenient amounts of energy

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16
Q

what is ATP?

A

essential high energy bond-containing compound

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17
Q

(x) of ATP to ADP releases (y)

A

hydrolysis, energy

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18
Q

coupling of energy release from ATP hydrolysis…

A

drives many anabolic reactions

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19
Q

what drives many anabolic reactions?

A

coupling of energy release from ATP hydrolysis

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20
Q

how many charges are on ATP and ADP?

A

ATP (4 -)
ADP (3 -)

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21
Q

is ATP stable?

A

not really

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22
Q

(x) must be expended to put an additional (y) on ADP

A

energy, negative charge

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23
Q

why is there an entropy loss when ADP is phosphorylated?

A

potential loss of resonance hybridization of inorganic phosphate (Pi)

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24
Q

what happens upon the hydrolysis of ATP?

A

decrease in electrostatic repulsion

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25
Q

hydrolysis of ATP causes a decrease in…

A

electrostatic repulsion of beta-phosphate

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26
Q

what do metabolic pathways often require?

A

activation

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27
Q

what is activation?

A

formation of a more reactive substance

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28
Q

a metabolite bonded to some molecule so that…

A

free energy change for breaking new bond is negative causes nxt rxn to be exergonic

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29
Q

what is glycolysis?

A

it’s the first stage of glucose metabolism

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30
Q

what is glucose converted to during glycolysis?

A

two molecules of pyruvate and 2 atp are made

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31
Q

once pyruvate forms…

A

multiple routes are optioned (aerobic oxidation, anaerobic alcoholic fermentation, anaerobic lactic acid fermentation)

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32
Q

1st rxn of glycolysis

A

phosphorylation of glucose to give glucose-6-phosphate
- Mg 2+ (cofactor) and hexokinase (enzyme)
- USE ATP

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33
Q

2nd rxn of glycolysis

A

isomerization of glucose-6-phosphate to give fructose-6-phosphate
- phosphoglucose (cofactor) and isomerase (enz)

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34
Q

3rd rxn of glycolysis

A

phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to yield fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
- Mg2+ and PFK
- USE ATP

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35
Q

4th rxn of glycolysis

A

cleavage of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to give glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihyroxyacetone phosphate
- aldolase (enzyme)

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36
Q

5th rxn of glycolysis

A

isomerization of dihyroxyacetone phosphate to give glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
- triosephosphate and isomerase

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37
Q

6th rxn of glycolysis

A

oxidation and phosphorylation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to give 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
- glyceraldehye-3-phosphate (cofactor) and dehydrogenase (enzyme)

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38
Q

7th rxn of glycolysis

A

transfer of a phosphate group from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to ADP to 3-phosphoglycerate
- Mg2+ (cofactor) and phosphoglycerate kinase (enzyme)
- MAKE ATP

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39
Q

8th rxn of glycolysis

A

isomerization of 3-phosphoglycerate to give 2-phosphoglycerate
- phosphoglycerate mutase (enzyme)

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40
Q

9th rxn of glycolysis

A

dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate to give phosphoenolpyruvate
- Mg2+ and enolase

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41
Q

10th rxn of glycolysis

A

transfer of phosphate group from phosphoenol pyruvate to ADP to give pyruvate
- Mg2+ and pyruvate kinase
- MAKE ATP

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42
Q

step one of glycolysis

A

uses enzyme hexokinase and cofactor Mg2+
- kinases transfer phosphates
- rxn is endergonic
- ATP hydrolysis drives rxn

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43
Q

step one of glycolysis (p2)

A

hexokinase can use glucose or any 6 carbon sugar
- glucokinase (in liver) binds only glucose
- when blood glucose is high, liver uptakes glucose more readily than other tissues

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44
Q

step two of glycolysis

A

uses enzyme glucosephosphate isomerase
- makes an isomer (G-6-P to F-6-P)

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45
Q

step three of glycolysis

A

ATP hydrolysis coupled to rxn
- uses enzyme phosphofructokinase to phosphorylate F-6-P generating fructose-1,6-bisphosphate

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46
Q

step three (regulatory step)

A

enzyme is phosphofructokinase (PFK)
- tetramer subject to allosteric feedback
- ATP is an allosteric effector

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47
Q

high ATP (x) PFK

A

inhibits

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48
Q

low ATP (y) PFK

A

activate

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49
Q

step four of glycolysis

A

F-1,6-BP split into two 3-carbon fragments (DHAP and G-3-P)
- rxn catalyzed by aldolase

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50
Q

step five of glycolysis

A

DHAP –> G-3-P by triosephosphate isomerase
- rxn is relatively small in terms of gibbs free E

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51
Q

glycolysis summary (steps 1-5)

A
  • glucose is converted to G-3-P
  • key intermediate is F-1,6-BP
  • PFK subject to allosteric control
  • 2 molecules (each 3C compounds) undergo these rxns
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52
Q

step six of glycolysis

A

oxidation of G-3-P to 1,3-bisphophoglycerate
- catalyzed by enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase

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53
Q

step six in detail

A

involves e- transfer from G-3-P to NAD+
- involves addition of phosphate

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54
Q

step seven

A
  • 1,3-bisphosphateglycerate converted to 3-phosphoglycerate
  • 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate transfers a phosphate group to ADP –> ATP (substrate level phosphorylation)
  • rxn is catalyzed by phosphoglycerate kinase
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55
Q

step eight of glycolysis

A

involves isomerization of 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate
- rxn is catalyzed by phosphoglycerate mutase

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56
Q

step nine

A

2-phosphoglycerate loses a molecule of water –> phosphophenolpyruvate
- enolase catalyzes rxn, requiring a Mg2+ cofactor
- phosphoenolpyruvate contains a high energy bond (molecule is Activated)

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57
Q

step ten

A

PEP transfers phosphate group to ADP –> ATP and pyruvate
- gibbs free energy of PEP is more than that of ATP
- rxn catalyzed by pyruvate kinase

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58
Q

glycolysis summary (5-10 steps)

A
  • rxns involve e- transfer to NADH and ATP production
  • net atp
  • net nadh
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59
Q

control points in glycolysis

A

hexokinase, PFK, pyruvate kinase

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60
Q

what are control points?

A

enzymes that create rxns that exhibits large decreases in free E by catalyzation

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61
Q

what must be done to keep glycolysis going?

A

NAD+ must be regenerated

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62
Q

under anaerobic conditions, NAD+ is…

A

regenerated by reduction of pyruvate to lactate

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63
Q

lactate dehydrogenase is a..

A

tetrameric enzyme

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64
Q

pyruvate is converted to…

A

lactate in actively metabolizing tissue, recycling NAD+ in the process

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65
Q

in some organisms, pyruvate is converted to

A

ethanol

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66
Q

three processes play central roles in aerobic metabolism:

A

citric acid cycle, electron transport, ox phos

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67
Q

what is NOT a substrate of the tca cycle?

A

pyruvate

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68
Q

pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is responsible for..

A

the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA

69
Q

what is produced in the transition from glycolysis to tca cycle?

A

NADH is generated, CO2 is made as a byproduct
- activation step

70
Q

citric acid cycle step 1

A
  • condensation of acetyl-CoA with oxaloacetate to form citrate
  • hydrolysis of thioester bond drives rxn
71
Q

TCA step 2

A
  • citrate is isomerized to isocitrate
  • done by a dehydration then hydration
  • changes position of OH
  • rxn is catalyzed by aconitase
72
Q

TCA step 3

A
  • oxidation of isocitrate
  • NAD+ reduced to NADH
  • decarboxylation forms alpha-ketoglutarate and CO2
  • catalyzed by isocitrate dehydrogenase
73
Q

TCA step 4

A
  • oxidation of alpha-ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA
  • catalyzed by alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex
  • NAD+ reduced to NADH
  • CO2 is made as by-product (decarboxylation)
74
Q

TCA step 5

A
  • succinyl-CoA is hydrolyzed forming succinate
  • catalyzed by succinyl-CoAsynthetase
  • previous activate step allows GTP to be made
75
Q

TCA step 6

A
  • oxi of succinate to fumarate
  • FAD reduced to FADH2
  • catalyzed by succinate dehydrogenase
76
Q

TCA step 7

A
  • hydration of fumarate to L-malate occurs
  • catalyzed by fumarase
77
Q

TCA step 8

A
  • malate is oxidized to oaloacetate
  • nad+ reduced to NADH
  • catalyzed by maltate dehydrogenase
78
Q

what are the three points of control in the tca cycle?

A
  • citrate synthase
  • isocitrate dehydrogenase
  • alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex
79
Q

citrate synthase

A

inhibited by ATP, NADH, succinyl CoA
- product inhibition by citrate

80
Q

isocitrate dehydrogenase

A

activated by ADP, NAD+
inhibited by ATP, NADH

81
Q

alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex

A

inhibited by ATP, NADH, succinyl CoA
activated by ADP, NAD+

82
Q

catabolism of proteins, carbs, fatty acids all…

A

feed into the citric acid cycle at one or more points

83
Q

amphibolic describes how

A

the tca cycle plays a role in both catabolism and anabolism

84
Q

tca cycle is the source of….

A

starting materials for biosynthesis of many other compounds

85
Q

if a component of the citric acid is taken out for..

A

biosynthesis, it has to be replaced

86
Q

what replaces oxaloacetate?

A

carboxylation of pyruvate

87
Q

tca cycle is considered part of the aerobic metabolic process b/c…

A

of its link to the electron transport chain and ox phos

88
Q

which cofactors pass their e- to oxygen?

A

NADH and FADH2

89
Q

where does ATP production take place?

A

mitochondrion

90
Q

o2 is reduced to…

A

H2O

91
Q

transfer of e- is strongly…

A

exergonic and can drive phosphorylation of ADP

92
Q

energy-releasing oxidations give rise to…

A

H+ pumping and a pH gradient across inner mitochondrial membrane

93
Q

coupling process converts…

A

electrochemical potential to the chemical energy of ATP

94
Q

what is the coupling factor that connects the e- transport and ATP?

A

ATP synthase

95
Q

mechanism by which the H+ gradient leads to the production…

A

of ATP depends on ion channels through the inner mitochondrial membrane

96
Q

during chemiosmotic coupling:

A
  • H+ flow back into the matrix thru channels in the F0 unit of ATP synthase
  • flow of protons is accompanied by formation of ATP in the F1 unit of ATP synthase
97
Q

P/O ratio is

A

the number of moles of Pi consumed in phosphorylation to the number of moles of oxygen atoms consumed in oxidation

98
Q

phosphorylation:

A

ADP + Pi –> ATP + H20

99
Q

oxidation:

A

1/2 O2 + 2H+ 2e- –> h2o

100
Q

P/O when NADH is oxidized

A

2.5

101
Q

P/O when FADH2 is oxidized

A

1.5

102
Q

what are shuttle mechanisms?

A

transport metabolites b/w mitochondria and cytosol

103
Q

glycerol phosphate shuttle

A
  • glycolysis in cytosol produces NADH
  • NADH does not cross mitochondrial membrane but glycerol phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate can
  • thru the glycerol phosphate shuttle, 1.5 ATP are produced in mitochondria for each cytosolic NADH
104
Q

malate-asparatate shuttle

A
  • found in mammalian kidney, liver, heart
  • malate crosses mitochondrial membrane while oxaloacetate can’t
  • transfer of e- from NADH in cytosol produces NADH in mitochondria
  • in malate-aspartate shuttle, 2.5 mitochondrial ATP are produced for each cystolic NADH
105
Q

ATP yield from complete oxidation of glucose

A

30-32 molecules of ATP are produced for each glucose molecule (depending on shuttle mechanism)

106
Q

what do kinase enzymes do?

A

transfers phosphates

107
Q

what co factor is needed for kinase rxns?

A

Mg2+

108
Q

what enzyme functions the same as isomerase?

A

phosphoglycerate mutase

109
Q

why does the glucose derivative get rearranged to an enol?

A

to make substrate more reactive + activate substrate

110
Q

which glycolysis rxns are irreversible?

A

1, 3, 10

111
Q

how can you tell a rxn is reversible besides the arrows?

A

small gibbs free energy = reversible

large gibbs free energy = irreversible

112
Q

step one of glycolysis (co-factor and enzyme)

A

Mg2+ and hexokinase

ATP to ADP

113
Q

step two of glycolysis (co-factor and enzyme)

A

phosphoglucose and isomerase

114
Q

step three of glycolysis (co-factor and enzyme)

A

Mg2+ and PFK

ATP TO ADP

115
Q

step four of glycolysis (co-factor and enzyme)

A

aldolase

116
Q

step five of glycolysis (co-factor and enzyme)

A

triosephosphate and isomerase

117
Q

step six of glycolysis (co-factor and enzyme)

A

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dehydrogenase

118
Q

step seven of glycolysis (co-factor and enzyme)

A

Mg2+ and phosphoglycerate kinase

ADP to ATP

119
Q

step eight of glycolysis (co-factor and enzyme)

A

phosphoglycerate mutase

120
Q

step nine of glycolysis (co-factor and enzyme)

A

Mg2+ and enolase

121
Q

step ten of glycolysis (co-factor and enzyme)

A

Mg2+ and pyruvate kinase

ADP to ATP

122
Q

what is the general name for enzymes like kinases, isomerases, etc?

A

dehydrogenase

123
Q

reason for aldolase’s name:

A

it makes an alcohol and aldehyde

124
Q

reason for isomerase name?

A

all makes 1 isomer

125
Q

why is the glucose derivative rearranged to an enol?

A

to make substrate more reactive

126
Q

which steps of glycolysis are most likely to be regulated?

A

hexokinase, pfk, pyruvate kinase

127
Q

what molecules might allosterically regulate the steps of glycolysis?

A

hexokinase (allosterically regulated by G6P)
pfk (allosterically regulated by ATP)
pyruvate kinase (allosterically regulated by ATP)

128
Q

how many net atp are generated in the glycolysis pathway?

A

2 atp

129
Q

how many molecules are produced at the end of glycolysis?

A

2 molecules of pyruvate, each has 3 carbons

130
Q

how is the energy change between glycolysis’ steps 4 and 5 possible?

A

b/c glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is being continuously drained off for the subsequent rxn in the glycolytic pathway

131
Q

how is the enzyme hexokinase found in the liver different from the hexokinase (1st enzyme in glycolysis)?

A

hexokinase in liver phosphorylates glucose rather than other sugars

132
Q

type of phosphorylation where the substrate adds the phosphate to adp….

A

substrate level phosporylation

133
Q

what is gluconeogensis?

A

similar to the reversal of 10 steps of glycolysis

134
Q

how many minimum atp would be needed to drive gluconeogensis?

A

at least 4 atp (actual # is 6)

135
Q

how many pyruvate molecules enter the tca cycle per glucose molecule that entered glycolysis?

A

2

136
Q

how many molecules of each of the following are produced in the tca cycle per glucose molecule that is completely oxidized?

A

atp - 2
nadh - 8
fadh2 - 2
CO2 - 6

137
Q

atp is produced in the tca cycle via what type of phosphorylation?

A

substrate level phosphorylation

138
Q

purpose of producing nadh and fadh2 in the tca cycle?

A

high energy reduced coenzymes carry electrons from food we eat to ETC

139
Q

what happens to the co2 produced by the tca cycle?

A

co2 is exhaled as we can’t get any more electrons or hydrogen from it

140
Q

why is it dangerous that arsenic inhibits the pyruvate dehydrogenase rxn?

A

cells get suffocated by not carrying out tca or etc, atp production can’t continue

141
Q

what happens to the nad+ and fad made via ETC?

A

it’s recycled back to glycolysis and tca

142
Q

final electron acceptor of nadh and fadh2

A

oxygen

143
Q

purpose of creating proton gradient?

A

drive ATP synthase to make a lot of ATP

144
Q

what is the p/o ration?

A

number of moles consumed in phosphorylation to the number of moles of oxygen atoms consumed in oxidation (or atp generated per nadh or fadh2 that is oxidized)

145
Q

p/o when nadh is oxidized

A

3

146
Q

p/o when fadh2 is oxidized

A

2

147
Q

nadh produced in glycolysis

A

number of nadh: 2
p/o ratio: 3
number of atp: 6

148
Q

nadh produced in kreb’s

A

nadh: 8
p/o: 3
atp: 24

149
Q

fadh2 produced in kreb’s

A

fadh2: 2
p/o: 2
atp: 4

150
Q

type of phosphorylation when p/o ratio is involved?

A

ox phos

151
Q

atp generated during glycolysis and kreb’s (aerobic respiration)

A

38 atp (2 from glycolysis, 2 from tca, 34 from etc and ox phos)

152
Q

why is cyanide toxic?

A

can’t continue etc, not generating enough atp

153
Q

the fate of the end product of glycolysis (pyruvate) depends on…

A

where o2 is present or not

154
Q

pyruvate that is made into lactate…

A

lactic acid fermentation

155
Q

pyruvate that is made into ethanol

A

ethanol fermentation

156
Q

in fermentation rxns, nad+ or nadh is generated?

A

nad+

157
Q

what is needed for the starting material in glycolysis?

A

nad+

158
Q

how many atp are made during fermentation?

A

0

159
Q

why might fermentation necessary?

A

to involve nad+ to carry out glycolysis when there’s no o2 available

160
Q

tca cycle is a central metabolic pathway that can be used both anabolically and catabolically? t or f?

A

false

161
Q

which enzyme uses coenzyme fad as the e- acceptor?

A

succinate dehydrogenase

162
Q

conversion of malate to oxaloacetate has a high gibbs free energy but it can take place b/c…

A

the oxaloacetate product is used up in the subsequent rxn

163
Q

when mitochondria are actively carrying out aerobic respiration…

A

pH of matrix is greater than pH of intermembrane space

164
Q

synthesis of atp in mitochondria is driven by…

A

proton/pH gradient

165
Q

advantage of using multiple steps in e- transport?

A

more E is captured to make ATP

166
Q

purpose of tca cycle?

A

generate reduced coenzymed NADH and FADH2 to be used in ETC to make ATP

167
Q

reduction of pyruvate to lactate allows for

A

recycling of NAD

168
Q

alcohol dehydrogenase resembled lactate dehydrogenase in that it

A

uses NADH as a coenzyme

biochem (11 decks)

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