Exam

Question 1

What sort of communities did people live in, in the 1500’s?

Answer 1

The majority of the population lived in the countryside and agriculture was the main economic source. Nearly all production in the 1500’s was local and each region tended to grow all the food and manufacture products its population needed.

• In 1500, the majority of the population was illiterate. This is because most jobs were unskilled and did not require reading or writing. There was a small portion of educated elite which included church figures, lawyers doctors etc.
• Christianity was the official religion of the west and minorities were persecuted. Some were put to death for heresy. The Christian Church was the most important institution, even more so than the government.
• The West’s knowledge of the rest of the world was growing but limited as the existence of Australia and New Zealand was still unknown.

In shrot, the west in the 1500 was largely rural, generally poor, dominated by religion, intolerant of minorities and limited in its understanding of the outside world.

Question 2

How was society organized in the 1500’s? State its main features?

Answer 2

Society was organized in a hierarchical manner. The religious hierarchy looked like this:

1. The people.
2. Cardinals
3. Bishops
4. Priests

Each level of hierarchy enjoyed special privileges.

On the civil side, the hierarchy looked like this:

1. The king
2. Nobility
3. Professionals (lawyers, doctors)
4. Skilled artisans
5. Rural Laborers

No social mixing among these orders.

Men had leading roles as women were seen as weak. Men owned the family property and passed it down to their sons.

The guild was a big feature of the 1500s. They wanted to keep the supply of goods low to keep prices up.

Question 3

What were the factors that made people reluctant to embrace change in the 1500’s?

Answer 3

• The dominance of religion
• The level of intolerance
• Low and static income levels. Unequal distribution of wealth amongst the classes. The nobility, religious figures etc. would experience income growth, but the average person would not.
• The general comfort that came from old ideals, beliefs and ways of life. This is partly because there was little contact among different regions of the world.
• Cheap labour and slavery. Because labour costs were low, purchasers had little incentive to look for cheaper, more efficient methods . Because of this, traditional production methods survived.

Question 4

What factors encouraged change in the 1500’s?

Answer 4

• Gutenberg and the Printing Press. In the 1440s, Johannes Gutenberg created the priting press. This led to the mass production of books and as a result, books become more readily available and cheaper which led to advancement in education.
• The printing press also had a significant influence on religion as the Bible became more widely available, more people could read scriptures and interpret them for themselves.
• The growth of Humanism spurred changed as traditional religious thinking argued that humans were weak and sinful, however, humanists believed in the the dignity and potential of the human race and argue that humans are capable of making the world a better place on their own. Because of this, religion does not need to be the centre of a person’s life.
• Religious reformers such as John Hus and John Wycliffe who advocated for the individual interpretation of God’s word which undermined support for the Church Hierarchy.
• Secular writings led to a decline in the Church’s influence and some of its traditional supporters. This allowed for religious reformers to gain followers.

Question 5

Definition : Secular

Answer 5

People are not required to believe in a particular religion - or any religion at all.

• Pertaining to the quality of life in the state, and in education apart from religious considerations

Question 6

Definition: Heresy

Answer 6

Holding on to beliefs that the leading church said was wrong.

Question 7

Definition: Social Mobility

Answer 7

Possible for the children of parents with little education to become highly educated professionals

• It is a change in social status relative to others’ social location within a given society.

Question 8

Definition: Hierarchical

Answer 8

Many distinct orders and classes of people

Question 9

Definition: Dowry

Answer 9

Portion of money or goods given to the new couple to help them establish themselves.

Question 10

Definition: Artisans

Answer 10

People highly qualified in a particular trade

Question 11

Definition: Guild

Answer 11

A guild was an association of artisans of the same trade, and it licensed new artisans.

Question 12

Definition: Cottage Industries

Answer 12

People manufactured good in their own homes as there were no factories to produce them.

Question 13

Definition: Barter System

Answer 13

A system in which people traded goods for other goods.

Question 14

Definition: Subsistence

Answer 14

Wages allowed families to survive at the minimum and little more.

Question 15

Definition: Humanism

Answer 15

A philosophy concerned with human beings, their nature, their development in making life better in the secular world; a cultural and intellectual movement in the Renaissance,

Question 16

John Wycliffe

Answer 16

1320 - 1384 - 14th century

• a religious reformer who believed that the Church had become corrupt and no longer represented the true Christian faith. He argued that there was nothing in the Bible to support the authority of the pope and that the position should be abolished along with other senior positions. He believe that the Bible should be written in the local language which would allow people to interpret it for themselves.
• Advocated for the individual interpretation of God’s word which undermined support for the Church Hierarchy.
• believed individuals could gain salvation solely through the authenticity of their faith

Question 17

John Hus

Answer 17

1369-1415 - Head of the University of Prague and supported views similar to those of Wycliffe.

He led a movement that supported many of Wycliffe’s ideas and supported the introduction of lay people (ordinary people rather than clergy) in the ceremony of communion which was reserved by the Church exclusively for the clergy.

• He and Wycliffe were condemned as heretics and Hus was burned at the stake.

Question 18

Explain the social and political changes during the Renaissance. (50 MARK ESSAY QUESTION)

Answer 18

Today, the Renaissance remains a significant era in history as it represents a rebirth of numerous ideas that were present in the classical times of Ancient Rome and Greece, particularly humanism which had great effect on religion, government, art,literature and education, all of which experienced significant change,.

One of the most significant changes during the Renaissance was the emergence of humanism. Prior to its growth, society valued the qualities of submissiveness and acceptance due to the great dependence placed on the divine and supernatural powers reinforced by religious beliefs. However, humanism paved the road for change. It focused on human dignity and the potential of human beings to find the truth through reason and evidence rather than through revelations of the supernatural. It placed emphasis on the human role in affecting events.

Due to its influence on writers, philosophers and artists, there was an influx of interest in the areas of science, poetry, art and philosophy leading to an emergence of key figures such as Thomas Moore, Desiderious Erasmus, and Machiavelli, famous for his political philosophy in which he abandoned the morality of humanists.

At the beginning of the sixteenth century, Rome replaced Florence as the centre of the Renaissance, and it was during this time that the concept of the artist emerged as they began to climb the social ladder due to recognition of their works. Michelangelo painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, Sofonisba was one of the few female artists and Leonardo da Vinci invented a number of painting techniques and painted the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper. - Changed the way the world viewed art and artists. Their contributions to the era inspired others to see art and artists as valuable assets to the community.

Between 1500 and 1600 a population shift from rural to urban areas took place. This increased the living standards of most of the urban middle class. Peasants and farmers however did not benefit as the prices of every day goods also increased.

Education also experienced profound change as a result of renaissance humanism as humanists believed that education was they key to morality, in contrast to the medieval approach which placed greater emphasis on religion.

Humanist education was all about studying the classics and liberal arts. Grammar, poetry, mathematics were mandatory as were sports as they developed discipline and skill. Humanists believed this type of education would lead people to live lives of virtue and wisdom. Few females attended school.

• Europe was divided into Catholic and Protestant states. with further denominations such as Lutherans and Calvinists.
• Henry VIII sparked the reformation when he wanted a divorce from Catherine of Aragon as she could not give him a heir heir and he had fallen in love with Anne Boleyn. The Church however, did not allow for divorce so Henry officially separated England from the Church of Rome. He declared himself the leader of the Church of England, divorced Catherine and married Anne. For the next five years, England was swung between Protestantism and Catholicism. Protestantism was officially restored in 1558.

During the Reformation, Protestant educators established schools and universities and implemented humanist methods. They were available to the wider public as Luther believed that all children should have access to free education.

One of the most important consequences of the Protestant Reformation was the introduction of religious pluralism as it destroyed religious unity in the West forever.

As a result of the Protestant Reformation, the French Monarchy, for example, alternated between the Protestant and Catholic factions several times. Although Catherine de Medici wanted a balance between the two sides, she supported an attack on the Protestant in 1572 which became known as Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre of the Protestants. This massacre prompted the rise of an international alliance of Protestants.

Question 19

Explain the difference between primary and secondary sources and why they are important tools for research.

Answer 19

Primary sources is first hand information that you can analyze in order to come to a conclusion, for example a diary, newspapers or statistics. Secondary source is a second-hand account that a historian has written about a person, event etc. based on his or her interpretation of primary evidence. They tend to be biased. Examples: books, textbooks, documentaries and journals.

Question 20

Definition: City-states

Answer 20

The city and its surrounding land made up the state.

Autonomous political units that have a major city at their centre and include the neat hinterland.

Question 21

Definition: Oligarchy

Answer 21

Governments of the few; usually a group of wealthy people and/or aristocrats.

Question 22

What were the Papal States

Answer 22

A collection of territories, including Rome, ruled by the papacy. Popes ruled as both the secular and religious authority, and participated in all political and diplomatic matters.

Question 23

Who is the father of humanism?

Answer 23

Petratch (1304-1374) introduced the concept of chronology into the study of history by dividing history into three different eras

• Classical civilization
• Middle Ages
• The Renaissance

Question 24

Who is Giovanni Picco della Mirandola?

Answer 24

1463 - 1944. Known for writing Oration on the Dignity of Man in which he describes humans as the only creatures in the world free to become whatever they choose. Influenced by Platonic philosophy and its idealistic view of human nature.

Question 25

Who is Thomas Moore?

Answer 25

1478-1534. One of the biggest contributors to humanism who helped bring the Renaissance to the north.

He wrote “Utopia” in which he spoke about an ideal society in the newly explored world and how kings were more concerned with authority rather than being good rulers.

• Believed in a co-operative society and in the belief that reform must not only be political but social. He was against private property.

He became chancellor to King Henry VIII of England. The king wanted to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon, but the Church would not permit divorce. Henry moved to separate the English Church from Rome, allow divorce and obtain one himself. Thomas More refused to support him, and refused to accept him as the head of the Church of England. He was forced to resign and was beheaded by Henry VIII for having refused to acknowledge that the the king was the head of the English Church.

• He is seen as a martyr and a saint, but during his time as chancellor, he undertook the persecution of English protestants prior to Henry’s break with Rome.

Question 26

Who was Desideruious Erasmus?

Answer 26

• a humanist writer, known as the “prince of humanists” as he began an intellectual movement in Europe that blended humanism with piety.
• Translated the New Testament from Greek to Latin and believed that kings and priests should conform with Christian ideals.

Question 27

Who was Niccolo Machiavelli ?

Answer 27

1469-1527

• A civil servant who wrote history and political philosophy.
• Concerned with politics due to France invading Italy
• Wrote The Prince and abandoned the morality of humanists. He felt that is a prince was guided by moral principles, he would be restricted in his power which would not serve the best interest of the state.
• He challenged the humanist belief that education is the foundation of sound morals and that if given the choice, educated people will choose virtue over vice if its in their best interest.

Question 28

Who was Michelangelo Buonarroti? What was his importance?

Answer 28

1475-1564

-Michelangelo was a renowned Renaissance artist Influenced by Neoplatonism (focused on Plato’s ideals of beauty and virtue).

He painted the Sistine Chapel in Rope in 1508. His ideals of beauty and the ideal human are evident in these figures.

• Widely considered to be one of the greatest artists of the Italian Renaissance period
• Changed the way the world viewed art and artists.
• His contributions to the era inspired others to see art and artists as valuable assets to the community.

Question 29

Explain family, gender and the position of women during the Renaissance?

Answer 29

Family was very important in Italian life during the Renaissance. Marriages were arranged very carefully in order to raise the family’s status and strengthen business relations. A dowry was set in place which would determine if the bride moved up or down on the social ladder.

Gender roles were traditional. Fathers and husbands were the head of the family and responsible for legal matters. Wives were responsible for managing the household and bearing children

Question 30

Definition: Christian Humanism

Answer 30

Emphasized knowledge of the classics and sought to return to the simplicity of the Christian religion as presented in the Scriptures. They felt that reform was the most important aspect of their approach and they would have to change the people in it, and they felt that education was the only way towards this change.

Question 31

Who was Martin Luther? What was his significance?

Answer 31

1483-1546

• Was a significant part in the Protestant Reformation. Luther was focused on finding the answer to the question “how can one attain salvation”. When he finally found the answer, it ended up splitting Western Christendom into two branches and the doctrine of faith along bringing salvation become the main doctrine of the Protestant Reformation.
• Luther was disgusted with the sale of indulgences and the practices of corrupted church officials and published the 95 Theses arguing against the sale of indulgences which ended up being translated and widely distributed.
• On June 1520, the Pope issued the papal bull which condemned Martin Luther (excommunicate).
• In December of that year, Luther lit the papal bull on fire.
• Charles IV of Germany summoned Martin Luther to Worms and ordered a diet of worms and ordered him to recant.
• Translated the bible further, believed the Bible should be accessible by all and not just the priest.
• He went into hiding and began to organize a reformed church with salvation by faith along being the cornerstone (Lutheran belief). His beliefs spread quickly and lead to Protestantism in 1529 which marked the beginning of the New Lutheran Church.
• As a result of Lutheran ideas, society changed. Monasteries closed in some areas, clergy married, schools were established where the Bible was taught and read in the local language which resulted in the literacy rate increasing for both male and females, women played a bigger role in making decisions involving children and domestic matters.

Question 32

Who was Ulrich Zwingli?

Answer 32

1484-1531 began one of the two Reformation movements in Switzerland. His preaching has such an impact that over the next two years, strong reforms were introduced into city council through Zwingli. Relics and images were abolished and all paintings were removed from the Church. Music was eliminated as it served as a distraction to the word of God. All remnants of papal Christianity were removed. .

• He and Luther disagreed over one of the most important issues in Christianity - the presence of Christ’s body and blood in the Eucharist ceremony as Luther argued only for a symbolic ceremony.

Question 33

Who was John Calvin?

Answer 33

1509-1564 A second-generation reformer influenced by Luther’s writings. He is said to have had a religious revelation during which God guided him towards this religious cause of Protestant Reformation.

• He established his own church in Geneva with his own church constitution known as the Ecclesiastical Ordinances. This created a special body for enforcing moral discipline and acting in accordance with the will of God. His success in Geneva enabled the city to be one of Protestantism.

Question 34

Catholic/Counter Reformation

Answer 34

16th and early 17th centuries

The Church began a campaign called the Catholic Reformation which allowed the Church to regain a significant amount of territory that it had lost in Europe during the Protestant Reformation by reviving some of the older elements of the religion and establishing a number of orders, including the:

Usalines - Order of nuns who established schools for the education of girls and cared for the sick.

Jesuits - built schools based on humanist teachings open to anyone who wanted to attend. They fought Protestantism and were committed to restoring Catholicism. They went across the world winning new converts and bringing back Protestants.

• For example, the sale of indulgences was also put to an end.
• Council of Trent was formed in order to counteract the negative effects of the Reformation and to introduce reform.
• Roman Inquisition: In 1542, institutions were established by the Church in order to sentence people that the Roman Catholic Church believed to be guilty of heresy.
• Index of prohibited books: list of forbidden books published by the Pope in order to enforce conformity within the Church. Anyone caught with a book would suffer consequences

Question 35

What was the Gutenberg Printing Press and its significance?

Answer 35

• In the 1440s, Johannes Gutenberg created the printing press. This led to great change through the mass production of books and as a result, books become more readily available and cheaper which led to advancement in education.
• Governments could publish laws and influence a broader public and ideas could spread more quickly.
• The printing press also had a significant influence on religion as the Bible became more widely available, more people could read scriptures and interpret them for themselves

It is important historically for its impact on education. Classical texts and books became more readily available to a greater number of people. As a result, it contributed to the rise of secularism and the challenges to ruling authorities and dominant institutions such as the Catholic Church.

Question 36

Who was Leonardo Da Vinci? What was his significance?

Answer 36

1452-1519

• Artist, sculptor, inventor, engineer, scientist.
• Involved in anatomical research and developed a way of drawing human anatomy that is still used by medical artists oday.
• Designed several types of weapons
• The first to use perspective painting technique and famous for the painting “Last Supper” and “Mona Lisa”

Question 37

Who is Napoleon? What was his significance?

Answer 37

• Emperor of France
• Came to symbolize order following the chaos of the revolution.
• Napoleon demolished the Egyptian army with ease, but the British army was not that easy to defeat. Founded the Rosetta Stone while in Egypt.
• Reorganized the entire legal structure with the Napoleonic Code (basis of law in France and Quebec)
• Fair taxes, increased trade, improved infrastructure, new commercial code, a new central bank to control monetary polices was established
• Napoleon reached an agreement with the Pope allowing the Church a major role in French society while providing religious freedom for all others. He also abolished slavery and freed the serfs, and today he is seen as a progressive force in European history.
• To create a middle-class cadre of leaders, Napoleon reorganized France’s education system. He restarted the primary schools, created a new elite secondary system of schools and established many other schools for the general populace. He promoted education for girls and greatly improved teacher training. Literacy levels in France soared under Napoleon’s reforms.

Question 38

What was the Industrial Revolution? Explain its significance?

Answer 38

1750-1850

Changed the way of life from one of primarily agriculture and countryside to one of industrialization. It represented a gradual system of change in agriculture, society, trade, and industry

The impact of the Industrial Revolution was profound

• Changes to cotton production and eventually textile production furthered urbanization, increased consumerism, and automation (spinning wheel, weaving etc.) and led to the factory system which replaced the cottage industry.
• Due to the introduction of machines, many artisans were put out of jobs leaving them to find other sources of low-paying work.
• However, factories required a lot of employees - many of these were women and children as they were cheaper than men. However, they worked in unsafe and appalling conditions due to the danger of losing ones hand or arm in these machines.
• Population growth which led to urban migration due to the factory system being concentrated near coal and water.
• Poor working conditions, low wages, and overcrowding in cities
• Laissez faire economics
• Increased world trade
• Multiplier effect
• Rise of modern business system (corporations)
• Western civilization more interested in technology, entrepreneurship etc.

Second Industrial Revolution: 1870- 1914

• Modern inventions like farming/construction techniques, steam power, spinning wheel, weapons, transportation
• Increased food production and medical technology which led to more pop. increase
• Rise of socialism and communism
• Competition between industrial powers

Question 39

What was the French Revolution? Explain its significance?

Answer 39

• Began in 1789 and ended in the late 1790s with the ascent of Napoleon Bonaparte.
• During this period, French citizens razed and redesigned their country’s political landscape, uprooting centuries-old institutions such as absolute monarchy and the feudal system.
• Like the American Revolution before it, the French Revolution was influenced by Enlightenment ideals, particularly the concepts of popular sovereignty and inalienable rights.
• Although it failed to achieve all of its goals and at times degenerated into a chaotic bloodbath, the movement played a critical role in shaping modern nations by showing the world the power inherent in the will of the people.

Question 40

Who was Robespierre and what was his significance?

Answer 40

1758-1794

Robespierre was a lawyer and a politician. He was considered the defender of liberty in the early part of the French Revolution and was the leader of the Jacobin Reign of Terror 1793-1794 where over 36,000 people were executed.

The revolutionary government fought the war to victory, supported education, ended internal rebellion, checked inflation and abolished slavery in the colonies. The Jacobins were the first political movement to introduce an authoritarian regime int he name of liberty.

Robespierre argued for King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette’s execution.

Played a significant role in the French Revolution when the Jacobins gained power under their leader, Robespierre which came to be known as the “Jacobin Terror” where 35k to 40k people were killed.

He was in complete control as a leading member of the Committee of General Security and with a strong influence in the Committee of Public Safety.

Question 41

Who was Leonardo Da Vinci? What was his significance?

Answer 41

Leonardo Da Vinci studied human anatomy, designed weapons, and created a number of painting techniques. He had major influence in the design of hydraulics and mechanical and structural engineering. His weaponry designs brought about social and political change in western society. His knowledge and experience brought about change in painting, architecture, mechanics and human anatomy.

He contributed to Western civilization through each of these fields, altering society’s perception of the Church, etc. His genius ideas were to be materialized by inventors of the future.

He is famous for the Mona Lisa and Last upper.

Question 42

Who was the first industrialized nation? Who were the next?

Answer 42

England was the first, followed by

• France
• Belgium
• Germany
• The United States

Question 43

What were the effects of the Industrial Revolution?

Answer 43

• Population growth due to rising fertility as women began to marry younger
• Working and living conditions changed. Artisans lost jobs due to the introduction of machines, women and children were heavily sought after but were placed in dangerous working conditions. This inspired a number of novels including Hard Times by Charles Dickens.
• The law made all union activities illegal. The Luddites, for example, were a resistance group who broke into factories and destroyed textile machines in order to preserve the trades of the skilled cotton spinners.
• In 1824 , unions were legalized in England and new laws came into effect in i the 1840s and 1850s in order to regulate working conditions
• One of the major consequences of the industrialization was it removed much production from the household and made people much more dependent on wage labour.
• Factory towns became over-crowded, lacked sanitation and has terrible living conditions.

Question 44

Who was Robert Owen?

Answer 44

A business man and reformer who set up model living conditions for his workers, limited work hours and established schools

Question 45

What were the three stages of demographic migration int he 17th century? Why was international migration significant for the west?

Answer 45

First stage - people moved from rural areas to towns and cities in search for work

Second stage- People moved large distances in Europe in search for work.

Third stage- Traveled internationally in search for work and was significant for the west as it spread the western society ideals to other regions and secondly, it gave the countries where the migrants settled a large enough population to establish factories of their own.

Question 46

Who was Georg Hegel?

Answer 46

German philosopher interested in how societies changed. He believed in a cyclical process and there are three parts:

1. Thesis - A situation exists (people worked in stable employment in cottage-based industries)
2. Antithesis - A new and opposite situation develops and challenges the existing one (skilled workers lost their jobs and were forced to migrate to cities to find factory jobs with terrible conditions)
3. Synthesis - The two situations change each other and a new situation (a new thesis) develops. (Conditions in factories gradually improved and many people migrated to better lives overseas.)

Question 47

What was the period in Europe from the Peace of Augsberg in 1555 to the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 calle

Answer 47

It was called the age of religious wars due to conflicts between Protestants and Catholics and sometimes between Protestants and Protestants.

Question 48

When did the Renaissance period take place?

Answer 48

The Renaissance refers to the period from about 1350 to 1600 in Western Europe.

Question 49

What is Humanism? Explain it’s effect (20 mark question - 1 or 2 paragraphs)

Answer 49

Humanism is a cultural and intellectual movement in the Renaissance, concerned with human beings, their nature, their development in making life better in the secular world.

In contrast to traditional thinking which undermined the potential of humans, humanists believed in the the dignity and potential of the human race and argued that humans are capable of making the world a better place on their own. Because of this, religion does not need to be the centre of a person’s life.

The invention of Gutenberg’s printing press led to a significant growth of humanism as authors began to write more about secular topics. be the centre of a person’s life. The growth of humanism had great impact on literature and is largely to blame for the “Golden age of literature” in which the first secular themed novel was born - Don Quixote, and new plays were born, specifically speaking those written by William Shakespeare.

Because of this growing popularity for secular themes, the influence of the Church declined, making it easier for religious reformers to gain followers.

Thomas More was one of the most significant contributors to humanism. He was chancellor to King Henry VIII of England who wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon, however, the Church would not permit divorce. The King decided to separate the English Church from Rome, allowed divorce and obtained one himself. However, More refused to accept Henry as the Head of the Church of England, and thus, was forced to resign and was executed. He is viewed as a martyr and a saint.

Desiderius Erasmus is another famous contributor to humanism as he is famous for translating the New Testament of the Bible and is viewed as the “Prince of Humanists” for blending humanism with piety.

Later, Christian Humanism came into play. They differentiated from classical humanism in the way that they wanted to return to the simplicity of the Christian religion and believed that reform was the most important aspect of this approach through education.

Question 50

What is dogma?

Answer 50

A set of beliefs authorized by a church

Question 51

What was the reformation? Explain its effects on society, how it began, etc. (1-2 PARAGRAPH QUESTION, 20 MARKS)

Answer 51

The Protestant Reformation was a religious revolution that influenced all classes of society and split the Holy Roman Empire, creating two groups within Christianity: The Catholics and the Protestants. It created a number of social upheavals, particularly those from the peasant class. John Wycliffe and John Hus paved the road for the Protestant Reformation.

Martin Luther was a key figure in the Protestant Reformation as he became concerned with the the answer regarding achieving salvation. When he finally came up with the answer, it ended up splitting Western Christendom in two branches. He believe that you could be saved based on the authenticity of ones faith alone. Luther was disgusted with the sale of the indulgences - people could buy forgiveness for their sins through donating money to the Church.

In response to the abuse of the sale of the indulgences, he came up with the Ninety-Five Thesis which were translated and circulated. Luther was later excommunicated and went into hiding where he organized a reformed church.

Ulrich Zwingli later began one of two reformation movements in Switzerland where his preachings has great impact and led to strong reforms.

Europe was soon divided into Catholic and Protestant States and further divisions took place.

John Calvin, a Protestant reformer established his own church,Calvinism which focused on enforcing moral discipline and soon replaced Lutheranism as the International form of Protestantism.

However, has it not been for the actions of King Henry VIII, an English monarch, a Reformation may not have taken place.

Henry was married to Catherine of Aragon, but wanted a divorce for she could not give him a male heir and his lover, Anne Boleyn would not settle for being just a mistress. However, the Church did not accept divorce and so he proceeded to separate England from the Church of Rome and declared himself the leader of the Church of England. When he died in 1547, England was swung between Protestantism and Catholicism while battling for who would succeed King Henry as his son was only nine years old. In 1559, Protestantism was officially restored.

As a result of the Protestant Reformation, the French Monarchy, for example, alternated between the Protestant and Catholic factions several times. Although Catherine de Medici wanted a balance between the two sides, she supported an attack on the Protestant in 1572 which became known as Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre of the Protestants. This massacre prompted the rise of an international alliance of Protestants.

Years later, in 1592, Henry IV, a well liked monarch, proclaimed a religious settlement for all - The Edict of Nantes which recognized minority religious rights within a a Catholic country and granted the Huguenots freedom of public worship, the right of assembly and further education. However, did this not last as after his assassination, Louis XIV abolished the act.

Question 52

What was the Peace of Augsburg?

Answer 52

Formally gave each German state and princedom the right to be either Lutheran or Catholic. This was not freedom of religion for each sovereignty was to have uniformity of religion

Question 53

Who severed ties England’s ties to Roman Catholicism and established a national church?

Answer 53

Henry VIII. When he wanted to end his marriage to Catherine of Aragon due to no male hair, he requested an annulment, however, due to delay he used the Parliament to transform the Church by implementing several acts to reduce the power of the Church.

. He declared himself the leader of the Church of England, divorced Catherine and married Anne. For the next five years, England was swung between Protestantism and Catholicism. Protestantism was officially restored in 1558.

Question 54

What were Luther’s two main ideas?

Answer 54

Sola Fide - Salvation by faith alone

Sola Scriptura - Authority from the scripture alone

Question 55

What were the affects of the protestant reformation?

Answer 55

During the Reformation, Protestant educators established schools and universities and implemented humanist methods. They were available to the wider public as Luther believed that all children should have access to free education.

One of the most important consequences of the Protestant Reformation was the introduction of religious pluralism as it destroyed religious unity in the West forever with Europe being divided between Protestant and Catholic territories.

All people, regardless of social status were considered part of the religious community

The Reformation had serious political and economic implications as rulers wanted to create churches that sustained their political authority.

The wealth of the church was retained locally rather than sent outside in the case of Roman Catholicism.

The new states encouraged a religion that would be subject to and protected by political authority.

Led to the Catholic/Counter Reformation

Question 56

What was the Saint Bartholomew Day Massacre of the Protestants?

Answer 56

1572
Occurred when Catherine secretly plotted against the Protestants due to fear of growing influence of the Protestants (she wanted a balance of power between both sides)

She supported an attack that killed 3000 Huguenots. Within 3 days, organized attacks killed nearly 20k Huguenots.

• this massacre promoted an international alliance of Protestants

Question 57

What was the Edict of Nantes?

Answer 57

Henry IV proclaimed this settlement on April 13, 1598 which recognized minority religious rights within a Catholic country, granting the Huguenots freedom of public worship, right to an assembly etc.

• ended up only being a truce as Henry IV was assassinated

Question 58

Pacification of Gent:

Answer 58

Held the provinces together under the leadership of William the Silent following years of bloodshed between Netherlands and Spain.
Signed in 1576.

The northern and southern provinces out aside their differences in order to revolt against the a Spanish Habsburgs. It called for the expulsion of Spanish troops from the Low Countries and an end to the persecution of Calvinists

Question 59

Why did the Netherlands and Spain split following the Pacification of Ghent?

Answer 59

Religious differences split the union as the southern provinces formed a Catholic union called the Union of Arras in 1579, and accepted Spanish control, while the northern provinces formed a Protestant union called the Union of Utrecht and rejected Spanish control.

The Netherlands remained divided until 1609 when the religious wars finally stopped with a 12 year truce.

Question 60

What was the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity?

Answer 60

Following Mary Tudor’s death, Elizabeth II (daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn) introduced the Act of Supremacy which her the supreme ruler of England in both religious and secular affairs.

Act of Uniformity restored the church service of the Book of Common Prayer from Edward VI with some revision to appeal to Catholics.

Question 61

What was the Spanish Armada?

Answer 61

In 1588, Philip II of Spain ordered his troops in a fleet known as the Spanish Armada to cross the English channel and invade England. This campaign failed miserably as they were defeated by the English.

Question 62

When did the Thirty Years War take place?

Answer 62

1618-1648

• Four phases to this war as a number of countries fought for their independence against
  centralizing powers.

First Phase - Bohemian Phase -

• Archduke Ferdinand was accepted as their king but regretted their decision.
• In May 1618, Protestant nobles rebelled against Ferdinand by throwing two Hapsburg governors and a secretary out of a window. The nobles then seized control of Bohemia and replaced Ferdinand with the Protestant ruler Elector Frederick.
• Ferdinand didnt accept defeat and went back to defeat Frederick and the Bohemian nobles and declared Catholicism its only religion

Second phase - Danish phase

• Danish king, Christian IV intervened on behalf of the protestants and led his army into northern Germany. However, they were defeated.

At this time, in 1629 Ferdinand II issues the Edict of Restitution which prohibited Calvinist worship and restored the Catholic Church. Protestant princes lost all their property they gained.

Third Phase - Swedish phase -

• Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus entered the war and supported the German princes as he was also a Lutheran.

Sweden won, but it cost them their king. Later, Wallenstein and the imperial army defeated the Swedes in 1634 and drive them out of southern Germany. The emperor agreed to cancel Edict of Restitution in order to establish peace, however, the Swedes wanted to continue fighting. Wallenstein was killed due to suspicion of plotting to overthrow the emperor.

Final phase - Franco-Swedish phase

• Religious issues led to dynastic power politics. Protestant Swedes allied with the Catholic French to go against the Catholic Hapsburgs of Germany and Spain. Om 1643, at the Battle of Rocroi, the French defeated the Spanish and broke their military supremacy. They conquered the imperial Bavarian armies in Southern Germany.

The Thirty Years War was ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.

• Affected political and religious nature of Europe for hundreds of years.

The two churches - Catholics and Lutherans - still competed for control over different areas in Germany.

• This led to two factions, the German Protestants “Protestant Union” supported by Dutch, English and French
• and the Catholics who formed the “Catholic League” supported by Spain
• 1618-48
• Series of conflicts fought between Roman Catholic and Protestant states fought primarily in Germany
• Started in Bohemia with a Protestant revolt against the Holy Roman Empire and eventually involved almost all of the countries of Europe
• By its final years, religious issues had been submerged and it had become a struggle for power between Austria/Spain on one side and France on the other.
• Demonstrated neither religion were strong enough to dominate the continent.
• Religious toleration was increased in Germany but freedom of worship was still limited in all countries.
• Altered balance of power among European countries.
• Roman Empire lost effective control in Germany and the influence of the Hapsburgs.
• Sweden and France emerged as powers where Spain’s power declined.

Question 63

What was the Tre aty of Westphalia?

Answer 63

Treaty signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years War as it ensured that all of the German states were free to determine their own religion.

Also gave France parts of Germany and the cities of Metz and Toul giving the French control of the Franco-German border area.

Sweden and the German states also gained territory.

Austrian Hapsburgs lost their authority in Germany.

Over 300 states that had previously made up the Holy Roman Empire were recognized as independent.

Finally, the treaty made it clear that religion and politics were two completely separate realms.

Question 64

Political and Economic Changes from 1500-1700

Answer 64

Louis XIV (1643-1715) came to France’s throne at age 23 and was the best example of absolutism in which all the power belongs to the ruler.

• Remembered for saying “I am the state”.
• In order to establish his strong and stable reign he made some changes. He moved the central policy-making into the Palace of Versailles. By doing so, Louis was able to run his court, rule over his country and receive important visitors all under one roof.
• He removed the high-ranking nobles and royal princes from the royal council. He replaced these nobles and princes with minsters from upper middle class who had no blood relations at the court.
• Established three councils - the court of state, the court of finances and the court of dispatches - presiding over all three. This way he maintained a firm grim on all gov’t affairs.
• created a standing army - meaning it maintained even in peace time. This army allowed France to dominate European politics for years to come.
• became known as the Sun King, famous for a brilliant court and a sound successful reign. Because of him, France has become the dominant European power and the influence of French culture was evident all around.
• Appointed Jean Baptiste Colbert who believed in mercantilism in which the government regulates economic activity based on the idea that national wealth will lead to international power. Because of him, France went from owning only 18 vessels, to 276 in 20 years. Colbert wanted to increase the funds in the royal treasury and reduced income taxes and increased indirect taxes such as road tolls and shipping taxes. He believed that if the rich has more money at their disposal, they would spend it on local goods, therefore, improving the French economy.
• Louis XIV wanted a Catholic France and cancelled the Edict of Nantes and called for the destruction of Huguenot churches and schools.
• Louis XIV instigated four major wars
• Louis limited provincial governors to a term of three years so that if they became disloyal they would not have much time to do damage.
• All laws received his approval before being passed.
• Modern bureaucracy based on members of the middle-class.
• In 1688, England adopted constitutionalism - a system where parliament governs, not by its monarch.
• English Revolution - James I came to the throne and wanted to rule in absolutist fashion but Parliament rejected this. Parliament would not give him the money he asked for to manage the financial crisis he was in, he renewed a law that forced people to pay the Crown when their children married and sold monopolies to anyone who could afford them.
• Charles I, James I’s son, succeeded him and increased tensions between the Crown and Parliament. He asked Parliament for a tax increase in 1629 and was refused. He suspended Parliament and began to rule as an absolute monarch. Here, the “Eleven Years of Tyranny” began. 11 years later, he recalled Parliament because he needed help financing a war in Ireland.
• Civil war began when Charles decided to arrest his most important opponents, who had escaped.
• Civil war lasted from 1643 to 1649 between the Royalists who supported the monarchy and the Parliamentarians who supported the Parliament.
• Beheaded in 1649 after captured by Parliamentarians and refused to negotiate.
• Period of Restoration hen English throne was restored in 1660 when Charles II came to throne.
• Glorious Revolution occurred when Charles II died and his brother James II came to throne. However, due to being an absolute monarch, William of Orange, came to take the throne away from him. He came to England with 15,000 troops and James II fled without a fight. Not one shot was fired.
• Following the Glorious Revolution, William and Mary (James II daughter) ruled together as constitutional monarchs.
• The Bill of Rights was passed in 1689 and outlined the powers of Parliament. The monarch reigned but Parliament governed. Constitutional monarchy was established.
• This period greatly affected philosophy for absolute monarchy affected Thomas Hobbe’s view and the Glorious Revolution affected John Locke’s.

Question 65

What was the Scientific Revolution?

Answer 65

• Lasted from the mid 16th century to the early 18th century.
• New methods were being proposed and new questions were being asked.
• The darkness of thought in the medieval period was removed and the sun was declared centre of the universe.
• Ideas of gravity were proposed and most importantly, people began to wonder.
• The Renaissance revolutionized art and religion and the scientific revolution developed the foundation for modern science.
• Scientists who contributed greatly to the scientific revolution: Galileo, Newton and Copernicus

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, numerous changes took place in science, politics and philosophy.

• At first it was believed that the earth did not move, is imperfect and always moving. Earth was thought to have been in the centre of of all the spheres (geocentric view).
• Nicolas Copernicus was not convinced by Ptolemy’s geocentric concept. Believed in a heliocentric universe in which the sun was the centre.
• Controversial as it challenged the role of humans as they were no longer in the centre
• Johannes Kepler came up with the three laws of planetary motion which confirmed Copernicus’ heliocentric theory.
• Galileo Galilei discovered mountains and craters on the moon. His works disproved medieval ideas which the Church condemned partly because it depicted the Copernican system as superior.
• Galileo demonstrated that an object would move faster if a uniform force was applied to it. He also discovered inertia which states that a body will stay in motion until another force stops it. It disproved once and for all Aristotelian-Ptolemaic system and confirmed Copernian model.
• Isaac Newton was one o the greatest genius’ of the scientific revolution. He invented calculus and the three laws of motion. This universal law explained motion in the universe.
• Francis Bacon developed the scientific method built upon inductive principles (specific piece of knowledge to general) and empiricism.
• Rene Descartes deduced the existence of God and the separation of mind and matter which came to be known as Cartesian dualism.
• Believed in deduction based on rationalism.

Question 66

What were the Spanish’s three main goals in establishing their empire?

Answer 66

1. First they wanted to extract wealth from it
2. Convert the Aboriginals to Christianity
3. Establish their own colonial organization over their new empire.

Question 67

Political and Economic Changes from 1500-1700 during the period of exploration (50 MARK ESSAY QUESTION)

Answer 67

Voyages of exploration begun when the Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator became interested in bettering the Portuguese economy through overseas trade in the 13th century. However, it was not until Vasco da Gama established an overseas trade route to India and took control of the port of Goa in 1510 that significant advances were made in exploration.

Through numerous conquests, including Ceylon, Portugal soon became one of the leading empires, acquiring large quantities of spices which helped further their economy and allowed them to use Macau as a trading post. During these series of events, completely new land mass was “discovered” - the Americas.
The development of empires in the Americas forever changed the development of the region. Both the colonized and the colonizers were affected by the process, however, it was the Indigenous population who reaped the consequences as the Europeans viewed them as savages and attempted to convert them to Christianity. The political, economic and social traditions of the Aboriginals was destroyed.

When Spain took control of South America, a new system called “encomienda” came into place in which the indigenous peoples were allocated to Spanish masters. They were left with little land, lost tradition and ultimately, the loss of an ancient civilization.

European explorers returned from the New World with riches and great wealth of new products which they introduced to the Americas.

• The colonies were set up to serve the economic needs of the host country. The main goal of colonial expansion was to make the host country richer. All colonies at this time were run on mercantilist principles - colonies should only trade with the host nation and were not free to trade with any other country.
• This made sure that profits from trade became concentrated in the hands of the colonizers. However, it tended to restrain economic growth through its many restrictions. The wealth accumulated tended to go to colonial settlers and those in Europe conducting colonial operations. The Aboriginals experienced little, if any increase in wealth.
• European states began to establish central banks to regulate the money supply, and to convert one currency into another. For example, the Bank of Sweden and the Bank of England gradually replaced the private banks that used to operate. Aboriginal peoples were excluded from such institutions.
• Private Trading Companies were established as this allowed European monarchs to keep their own development costs down. If a colony failed, the Crown would not lose anything. The Hudson Bay Company is one of the most famous examples of private trading companies. King Charles II of England granted it a monopoly of trade in the land whose rivers drained into Hudson Bay. Since nearly all rivers from Rocky Mountains to Quebec drained into Hudson Bay, the company enjoyed a trade monopoly.
• One of the greatest effects of overseas colonies was that they increase rivalry and wars. Trading companies of rival nations were keen to poach trade in each other’s territory.
• The Seven Years War (1756-1763) was the largest imperial war of the 18th century and pitted England and France against each other. The surrender of New France to the British was one of the most significant results of this war. It changed the landscape and increased trade and fighting around the world.
• Principle benefits were given to the colonizers.
• Aboriginal peoples look at this period as one of loss and destruction.
• In the 16th century, Phillip II, despite leading Spain to becoming one of the greatest power, the Spanish economy suffer inflation. As a result, the gap between the rich and poor widened as the peasants were the the most heavily taxed. Phillip II inherited the Netherlands from his father (United Provinces) which were prosperous through trade and commerce, however, they were vulnerable to outside religious influences. Phillip II wanted to crush the existing Protestant order which frustrated those of the United Provinces and led to a rebellion that lasted until 1576 when the Pacification of Ghent was signed.

Question 68

Slavery

Answer 68

Demand for slaves in the Americas was spurred by two factors:

• The collapse of the Aboriginal population as a result of diseases introduced by European colonizers.
• Potential of rich lands to grow crops to sell to hose countries. These developments created economic potential but a lack of human resources to do manual work. Europeans decided to import slaves from Africa where slavery was already in existence.
• By mid 18th century a large demand for slaves existed from the british colonies in America where cotton and sugar plantations required lots of labour.
• In 1807, Britain and the US abolished the slave trade although slavery remained legal in Britain until 1833 and in the US till 1863.
• Emancipation - setting the salves

Question 69

Who established the first Western colony in Asia?

Answer 69

In 1509 the Portuguese established the first Western colony in Asia.

They took control of Goa, on the west coast of India.

Question 70

In the late classical period, what were the two great empires in the West? What happened to them?

Answer 70

• Byzantine Empire (eastern) collapsed due to pressure from the Ottoman Turks and the crusades.
• Ottoman Empire - suffered a major defeat and had to sign the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1669 which required the to give up lands in modern Hungary and allow European traders access to their commercial empire.

Question 71

Who was Peter the Great?

Answer 71

• Russian monarch from 1689-1725
• Helped Russia become a great power by reducing its isolation from Europe and adopting European ways.
• Reorganized army by turning peasants to soldiers in a standing army and established training schools for the nobility who became officers and led the army. This turned the Russian army into an effective fighting force.
• Made improvements to the education system and reformed the Russian alphabet.
• Built a new city, St. Petersberg and made it the capital.
• Still did not fully adopt Western ways due to its lack of ports and harsh climate which made travel difficult.

Question 72

What was the Enlightenment period?

Answer 72

• Intellectual revolution
• Began in the eighteenth century in France
• Changed from the old regime with strict social divisions
• The Age of Enlightenment was a period of scientific awakening and known as the age of reason
• Characterized as an age of great intellectual thought
• Enlightened thinkers promoted rationalism and encourage cultural optimism and espoused the need for human rights, public education, freedom of thought, speech and press
• Pierre Bayle was one of the first “philosophes” applied the principles that became the foundation of Enlightenment - healthy skepticism and no distinction between religious matters and matters of state.
• It challenged existing thought.
• Development came about in art and music.

Question 73

Who were the philosophes?

Answer 73

A series of writers in the enlightenment period who tried to apply to the social world some of the principles that scientists had already applied to their discipline.

Believed in social progress and believed people could change their society through reforming institutions.

• Voltair’es novel “Candide” attacked the notion that the state of the world was as good as it could possibly get.
• Rousseaus novel “Emile” argued for education and argued for teaching students how to think.
• Philosophes argued that while womens emotional and intellectual processes were different than men’s, they had an important role to play in society. They wanted to increase women’s legal and political rights.

Question 74

Who were the physiocrats?

Answer 74

• Enlightenment period

- group of writers who applied Enlightenment principles to economics.

Question 75

What were salons?

Answer 75

Gatherings, usually organized by women, where people interested in the ideas of the Enlightenment could meet to discuss them

-Played an integral role in the cultural and intellectual development of France

Question 76

Enlightenment Despots

Answer 76

Monarchs interested in the principles of the Enlightenment and tried to put them into practice. They ruled absolutely.

Different from earlier despots in the way that hey never claimed that their power came from God.

Based on reason and believed history of humanity was ugly and based on conflict.

• Based on the need to reform society and reform the law, army, schools, church etc.
• All citizens were assumed to be equal under the law.
• Inhumane penalties previously imposed by the law were abolished (For example torture to extract evidence from accused people or witnesses)

Question 77

Seven Years War

Answer 77

• 1756-1763
• Britain’s attempts to strengthen its empire and weaken their rivals’ led to a series of wars in the mid 18th century.
• Britain fought France for colonial supremacy. Britain took New France and made it into the British colony of Canada.
• Great Britain & Prussia vs. France and Austria
• British colonists wanted to expand into western American colonies (meant more trade, more wealth)
• Britain gained the final victory and emerged as the most important colonial power in the world.
• Because the war was so expensive, to pay for the cost of the war, the British heavily taxed the colonists in the Americas on items like sugar, tea, paper etc.

Question 78

Boston Tea Party

Answer 78

Following the 7 years war, in protesting the imposed taxes, a group of protesters slipped onto a ship in the Boston Harbour and threw all the tea into the water as a sign that the tax on tea was unacceptable as it has not been approved by the colonial legislatures.

Question 79

The Quebec Act of 1774

Answer 79

After taking control of New France, the British tried to treat the French Catholic harshly.

In 1774, the British changed their policy direction with the Quebec Act which permitted Catholics to hold positions of appointment by the Crown and also extended the boundaries of Quebec (Ohio, Indiana etc.)

Question 80

The Second Continental Congress 1775

Answer 80

Meetings organized to develop a strategy in dealing with the Crown. Came up with 3 goals:

• To raise an American army
• To ask France to support it against the British
• To invite residents in Quebec to join the American side (did not accomplish this one)

Question 81

Declaration of Independence

Answer 81

On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was adopted stating that the Thirteen Colonies had abandoned their ties with the Crown and were a free nation.

Question 82

The American Revolutionary War

Answer 82

1776-1783 (18th century)

• Britain and American colonies went to war

Britain were defeated in 1783

• The Treaty of Paris between Britain and American colonists recognized the independence of what soon came the United States
• American constitution was established based on Enlightenment principles. The United States was to become the most influential member of the west. It was a symbol of freedom for the oppressed peoples.
• Established a constitution and a system of government that remains largely unchanged to this day.

Question 83

Who was Simon Bolivar?

Answer 83

• Led independence movements in South America during the 18th century.
• He led countries like Gran Colombia (today Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador) to their independence from Spanish rule, and essentially set in motion the full independence of modern South American countries.

Question 84

Causes to the French Revolution?

Answer 84

• France’s government was among the most traditional in Europe
• Headed by an absolute monarch, Louis XVI, who ruled as a dictator. The Crown was broke and it was impossible to impose new taxes. They had to call the Estates-General who has not met for 175 years.
• First and second estates (clergy and nobility) voted in favour of taxes which would hit the middle class and poor the hardest, the third estate could do nothing. The third estate recognized this was not fixed in their faovur.
• The Estates-General met at Versailles in May 1789 and the third estate responded by presenting a huge number of notebooks full of its complaints. They declared itself the National Assembly, able to pass their own laws since it represented the largest number of French people. Louis responded by locking them out of the meeting chamber.

The third estate found an indoor tennis court at Versailles and met there and renamed itself the National Assembly.

• It was the first step in the Third Estate of France forming an organized protest of the French government in the lead-up to the French Revolution.

Question 85

What is the significance of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen?

Answer 85

• Passed by the National Assembly
• It was a statement of principle and hope, reflecting the ideas of the Enlightenment. It is significant for it became the creed of the Revolution.
• Was to be a rallying cry to all French people to get rid of the incompetent and self-interested form of government that had run France for too long in the 18th century.
• Was made the “preamble” to the Constitution in 1791

Question 86

The French Revolution

Answer 86

• Moderate Phase which lasted from 1789-1792. It favoured steady constitutional reform along with Enlightenment thinking. It did not favour the use of violence to achieve revolutionary goals.
• This phase came to an end when Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette tried to flee to Austria. They were captured, found guilty of treason and put to death.
• Declaration of War against France in 1792 took place. Russia and Austria formed an alliance to go to war with France, and France declared war on Austria in April 1792.

The Second Revolution - 1792-1799. The Girondins and Jacobins, two radical leftist groups were prepared to use violence to secure the goals of the Revolution. The Jacobins seized power under their leader Maximilien Robespierre.

• This lasted just over a year and in that time, between 35,000 and 40,000 “enemies of the revolution” were killed.

Following Robespierre’s death, his committees were abolished and a small body called the Directory was established which acted as a guide and limited powers in order for another “Robespierre” to be prevented. The Directory was in power for four years.

Question 87

What was the significance of the French Revolution?

Answer 87

The movement played a critical role in shaping modern nations by showing the world the power inherent in the will of the people.

It had a long-term impact which shaped, politics, religion and ideas, and society. The principle of legal equality came about and the Church’s power was also reduced. It removed the power from a small group of elite rulers and established a democratic leadership.

Question 88

Who was Napoleon Bonaparte and what was his significance?

Answer 88

Napoleon Bonaparte was the emperor of France in the 19th century.

• Symbolized order following the chaos of the revolution. He completed the Code Napoleon - a new legal system that applied to all of France and recognized legal rights.
• Involved France in a series of wars.
• He resumed war with Britain in 1803 in order to establish France as the colonial power that controlled all of Europe.
• He took control of the Netherlands from Austria, invaded northern Italy, and invaded Spain and made his brother king.
• Fair taxes, increased trade, improved infrastructure, new commercial code, a new central bank to control monetary polices was established
• Napoleon reached an agreement with the Pope allowing the Church a major role in French society while providing religious freedom for all others. He also abolished slavery and freed the serfs, and today he is seen as a progressive force in European history.
• To create a middle-class cadre of leaders, Napoleon reorganized France’s education system. He restarted the primary schools, created a new elite secondary system of schools and established many other schools for the general populace. He promoted education for girls and greatly improved teacher training. Literacy levels in France soared under Napoleon’s reforms.
• His fall came in 1814 when the Quadruple Alliance was formed between Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia.

Question 89

How did Napoleon Bonaparte come to power? What occurred during his rule?

Answer 89

In 1799, Sieyes was convinced that a coup d’etat was taking place.

• He asked Bonaparte to return to France where he led a regiment of soldiers and threw the Convention and directors out of office. Sieyes became leader of a temporary government with Bonaparte being a consul.
• Napoleon came to power in 1799.
• Codified the Napoleonic Code - a new legal system
• Was unsuccessful in attempting to invade Britain.
• He took control of the Netherlands from Austria, invaded northern Italy, and invaded Spain where he was later faced to abandon due to guerillas and the British forcing him out.
• France had an agreement with Russia that they would work together to defeat the British however, Russia pulled out.
• France wanted to teach it a lesson and invaded it in 1812/ However, the Russians devised a plan to deal with him making sure that there was no food supplies for the invaders.
• The Russian winter was too harsh for them to handle and Napoleon ordered his troops to retreat. However, it was too cold and over 500,000 men were lost on the way home.

Napoleon’s fall came on March 18, 1814 when the Quadruple Alliance was signed between Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia. This required each of them to provide 150k troops to contain France.

He surrendered and was exiled for life to the island of Elba.. He escaped but was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo against Wellington.

Question 90

Congress of Vienna

Answer 90

Following Napoleon’s defeat, the Quadruple Alliance called a conference to discuss Europe’s future.

It adopted the overall principle of legitimacy in government meaning that monarchies should be re-established in countries that had abolished them with new kings descended from previous monarchs.

-Run by conservatives who valued traditional ideas.

Question 91

Political Revolutions in 18th and 19th centuries (Exam question)

Answer 91

During the 18th and 19th centuries, a number of political revolutions came afloat, the two primary revolutions being the American Revolution and the French Revolution, both of which changed the world politics for centuries to come.

Colonists accepted that they were British and that Parliament held the power to make laws that affected their relationship with the Crown, including raising taxes. As a result of fighting a costly war - the Seven Years War - in which Britain fought France for colonial supremacy, Britain needed to fund that war and decided to do so through imposing taxes on items such as sugar, tea and paper. In order to protest against these taxes, a number of individuals slipped onto the boat and dumped tonnes of tea into the water.

In 1774, after taking control of New France, they tried to treat the French Catholics harshly, however, the Quebec Act of 1774 changed that as it allowed them to hold positions of appointment and the boundaries of Quebec were extended. However, this caused the Americans to protest as they argued that these lands would soon be taken over by them.

In order to come up with a strategy in dealing with the Crown, two continental congresses were held. The Second Continental Congress of 1775 has three goals:

• To Raise an American Army
• to ask France to support it in a struggle with the British
• To invite residents in Quebec to join the American side (failed)

In 1776, The Declaration of Independence was adopted stating that the Thirteen Colonies abandoned their ties with the Crown and were a free nation. All that was left was war.

The American Revolutionary War lasted from 1776-1783 and involved Britain and its rebellious American colonies. Although, on paper, Britain was expected to win due to having a stronger army, navy and more allies, however, in 1783, the British were defeated. The Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of what soon would become the United States. This was significant for the United States as it placed them on the map as a superior force to be reckoned with.

In the 18th century, a second significant revolution also emerged. The government system of an absolute monarch was failing and in 1789, Louis’ financial adviser told him that the Crown was broke. The only solution was to call the Estates General and get them to agree to impose the taxes. The Estates General consisted of three estates - the first (Clergy), second (nobility) and the third, (everyone else). Seeing as it had not met for 175 years, it had a lot of pent up anger.If the first and second estates - the wealthiest - voted in favour of taxes, the middle class and poor would be hit the hardest, but the third estate could do nothing as they would be outvoted. They realized this and presented a number of notebooks filled with complaints and declaring themselves the National Assembly. The King, Louis, responded by locking it out of its meeting chamber.

The third estate found an indoor tennis court, on the palace grounds at Versailles and in August 1789, they passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen - a cry to all French people to get rid of the self-interested government that was running France. Following this, came the moderate phase of the Revolution which lasted from 1789 up until 1792. A number of moderate reforms took place including the abolition of feudalism and a New Constitution for France in which the King’s power was reduced.

However, the moderate phase soon came to an end as Louis XVI and Mari Anotinette attempted to flee to Austria, but instead were captured and executed.

The Monarchs in other nations looked at the situation in France anxiously as they thought that if a king could be arrested and held prisoner, this would set a negative example as it would show the great power the people held. Austria and Russia were especially opposed to this and formed an alliance to go to war with France. In 1792, it declared war on Austria.

The Second Revolution came to the forefront in 1792 and lasted until 1799. The Girondins and Jaboins, two radical leftist groups used violence in order to secure the goals of the Revolution and demanded that Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. be executed. From 1793-1794, the Jacbins seized power under their leader, Maxmilien Robespierre in which 35,000-40,000 enemies of the Revolution were killed. However, when he made a speech insinuating that there may be “enemies of the revolution” within their party, a group of members organized his arrest and sent him to his death where Napoleon would soon rise to power.

• The Moderates wanted a fully elected government with a president and deputies to pass laws. They wanted all adult males to have the power to vote. These were the majority.
• The radicals wanted a socialist revolution - an economic and political revolution. They wanted to take economic power from the rich and distribute it among all citizens. They wanted to abolish private factories and ownership and have national workshops.
• Moderates were in charged. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected. He organized a coup d’etat in 1852 and declared an end to the republic. However, it was put to an end after a defeat against Germany’s military at the Battle of Sedan.
• France then briefly went into civil war. The Paris Commune, a revolutionary group of workers tried to secure a socialist revolution, but was defeated with over 20k people dead.

The result of the revolution of 1848 was bloodshed. During this time, a number of revolutions came about, many inspired by Nationalism - the belief that people of a given language and cultural group should unite as a nation to ensure freedom.

The results were not encouraging. The governments that replaced the old ones were no more democratic. The liberals realized that they would need to rethink things - find strong leaders in advance, place focus on nationalism and not liberalism and have organized armies that could win military victories. This proved to be successful as proved by Italy.

In 1848, another French Revolution took place with two major groups at the centre of it all - the moderate and the radical revolutionaries. The moderates believed in a fully elected government whereas the radical revolutionists wanted a socialist revolution with reforms in both politics and economics. They wanted to take the economic power from the rich and distribute it equally. The moderates took charge and Napoleon Bonaparte II organized a coup d’etat and ruled as an absolute monarch. until Germany defeated France.

Question 92

Who was Bismarck and what was his significance?

Answer 92

He became chancellor of Prussia in 1862 and led the unification of Germany in three wars. which had profound effects in Europe as Germany defeated France and would no longer be the strongest European force. This unification led to World War 1

• Took step of proposing a reorganization of the German confederation, creation of national assembly
• Engineered the “Triple Alliance” with Austria-Hungary, Italy and Germany and maintained peace after winning three wars.
• Made Germany the strongest power in Europe protected by alliances
  and isolating its biggest enemy, France.

Question 93

Who was Charles Darwin?

Answer 93

• English biologist (1809-1882)
• Theory of evolution and natural selection (new species came into existence and ones that could not adapt, died out)
• Life on earth is the result of millions of years of adaptations to changing environment
• Important in the development of scientific and humanist ideas because he first made people aware of their place in the evolutionary process when the most powerful and intelligent form of life discovered how humanity had evolved.
• Challenged established thinking

Question 94

Realism

Answer 94

Opposite of Romanticism

• 1830s
• Realist writers believed that romanticism was sentimental and exaggerated
• Portrayed humans as “raw”

Question 95

What was the Second Industrial Revolution?

Answer 95

Occurred in the 1860s -1914

Modern inventions like farming/construction techniques, steam power, spinning wheel, weapons, transportation

• New technologies like iron, steel and machine making
• Growth of railways and long-distance shipping meant that items could be produced in the cheapest location and transported anywhere.
• Increased food production and medical technology which led to more pop. increase
• Competition between industrial powers

Question 96

Napoleonic Code and its Significance

Answer 96

• Codified laws of France
• It granted equal rights to members of all social groups and established separation of religion and secular law.
• The criminal code specified jury trial for major cases.
• The Napoleonic Code has influenced civil law in most of Europe, Canada, Latin America and the U.S.

Question 97

Karl Marx

Answer 97

• One of the founders of communism
• Believed in a class conflict (bourgeoisie, proletariat) which would result in a system based on socialism leading to communism in which there would be no need for government.
• Communist Manifesto
• Communism advocated common ownership of the means of production and embraced the power of the new working class
• Peached that neither reason or votes but only revolution would bring about the new socialist order

Marxism: - the political and economic theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, later developed by their followers to form the basis for the theory and practice of communism.

Question 98

John Stuart Mill

Answer 98

• English philosopher (1806-1873)
• Utilitarian who believed in the greatest happiness for the greatest number
• Began his campaign against wife-beating which resulted in the publishing of his powerful and influential book ‘The Subjection of Women’
• Believed women should vote and deserve respect.

Question 99

Explain New Imperialism

Answer 99

New Imperialism occurred as a result of the industrialized nations in the west.

The capitalism that Western economies were based on required continual growth.

• Western companies were always searching for new areas to sell their products and obtain cheap, raw materials.
• Leading political and religious figures felt that they had an obligation to “civilize” other areas of the world that were backward and did not share Western culture. Ex. converting people to Christianity.
• Social Darwinists argued that the nations in the West were more civilized than others (based on the racist belief that white races were more advanced). This was used to convince others to go overseas to help the “less civilized races”.
• Wanted to spread the knowledge they gained in literature, science etc.
• Cheap long distance international rail and shopping from the Second Industrial Revolution made it possible to transport goods for a low cost.
• Most nations in the West wanted to control China due to its silk, jewelry and tea. However, the Chinese emperors were reluctant. The British then used military force and in return, they began to import opium from India to China in order to have a product to sell. As a result, millions of Chinese became addicted.
• Russia and Japan also wanted pieces of China which led to the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) over imperial dominance over Chinese territory where the Japanese came out victorious and got control over all territory in dispute. Japan also became an important imperial power. The Chinese lost territory and faced drug addiction over the imported opium.

In India, in 1857, a rebellion known as the Indian Mutiny broke out where soldiers tried to force the British out, but the British defeated the rebels. This led the British to changing their policy in India including the British government administering the area and Queen Victoria being proclaimed Empress of India. This united the regions but the Indians that tthey’ve lost control of their government

• In 1876, Africa has many indigenous powers and local people controlled society and government. In 1914, only two independent African states were left. The colonizers thought African culture was backward and uncivilized and set out to convert Africans to European ways.

The colonizers built railways and ports to exploit Africa’s mineral wealth. None of this wealth went down to the colonial subjects. This led to insufficient development in Africa.

The United States became a leading imperialistic nation through the invasion of Mexico, Spain where they took over the colonies of Cuba, Philippines and Puerto Rico.

As a result of imperialism, the Indigenous peoples of this area experienced negative affects. They were left with lower quality land, often moved out of valuable land, and forcefully placed on reservations , existing customs, practices and laws were destroyed. Most of the wealth went to the colonizers, not the colonized.

Question 100

What was the most important fact that led to the outbreak of World War I?

Answer 100

Austria-Hungary was allowed to occupy and control Bosnia.

Question 101

Who were the alliances involved?

Answer 101

Triple Alliance - Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary

Triple Entente - Britain, France and Russia

Question 102

How was Wilhelm involved in the causes of WW1

Answer 102

He decided not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty of 1887 between Germany and Russia.

He then began to build up the German navy

Question 103

What was the spark to WW1?

Answer 103

The assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand on June 28, 1914 when he was visiting Bosnia on a goodwill tour.

Austria immediately accused the Serbian government of behind behind the assassination.

Question 104

When did WW1 begin and end?

Answer 104

1914-1918

Question 105

League of Nations

Answer 105

• International organization to reduce the dangers of war following WWI
• Established certain obligations for member states
• Provided a number of international organizations and procedures for conduct of interstate relations
• Failed primary mission of providing sense of security for members — WWII
• Limited to peace-keeping tasks
• Did not achieve universal membership (USSR, USA, Germany)

Question 106

Treaty of Versailles

Answer 106

Signed following WWI in 1919 outlining the terms in which Germany was to abide by including giving up all of its overseas colonies.

Question 107

What were the reasons for exploration during the Age of Exploration?

Answer 107

• To claim new territories to increase personal and national wealth.
• To spread Christianity. Priests often accompanied the explorers and territories were claimed in the name of God.
• New knowledge - to learn about the extend of the world beyond Europe.

Question 108

Who were the two sides in WW1?

Answer 108

Triple Alliance - Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy

Triple Entente - France, Britain and Russia. Germany later joined.

Question 109

Explain the significance of Winston Churchill

Answer 109

British Prime minister in 1940-1945 and 1951-1955. He is significant as he opposed the appeasement of Hitler from the start, for example allowing Germany to take over Czechoslovakia.

He is especially well regarded for his leadership as his speeches were great motivation for the British and commonwealth countries against the Nazis.

Churchill allied with Russian leader Josef Stalin and President Woodrow Wilson of the United States to fight the Axis Powers of Germany, Italy and Japan

Question 110

What were the two sides in WW2?

Answer 110

Allies - Britain, France, commonwealth countries, US, China and Soviet Union

Axis - Germany, Italy, Japan