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Grade 12 Bio > Exam > Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is the difference between diffusion, osmosis, and exocytosis?

A

Diffusion: net movement of a substance (e.g., an atom, ion or molecule) from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
Osmosis: net movement of solvent molecules through a partially permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration
Exocytosis: durable, energy-consuming process by which a cell directs the contents of secretory vesicles out of the cell membrane and into the extracellular space

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2
Q

What would make a red blood cell burst when placed in a solution?

A

Osmosis causes solution to move into red blood cell causing cell to expand and ultimately burst. a hypotonic solution will cause this as it moves towards solutes in red blood cells

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3
Q

a) What are radioisotopes?
b) What Particles do they emit?
c) What is a half life?

A

a) Unstable atoms of element with different atomic mass
b) Alpha (a) Beta (B) Gamma (Y)
c) Period of time for half of a radioisotope to decay

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4
Q

Explain how radioisotopes are used in PET Scans and Hyperthyroidism

A

PET Scan: Radioisotopes emit gamma rays when positrons and electrons collide, PET scanner can detect dead and live tissues (C-11 O-15)
Hyperthyroidism: Iodine-131 absorbed by thyroid gland, kills excess tissue, few side effects

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5
Q

a) Define Electronegativity

b) What are the effects of EN on bonds?

A

a) relative ability of an atom to attract valence electrons from other atoms
b) EN>1.7 =Ionic Bond, 0.4<0.4 covalent bond

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6
Q

How do you determine polarity?

A

Polar Bonds? If no, then it’s non-polar
Is molecule symmetrical? If no then it’s polar
Are Surrounding elements the same? If yes, non-polar, if no, polar

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7
Q

Explain LDF, Dipole-dipole, and Hydrogen Bonds

A

LDF: Weak Short range temporary dipoles, Stronger in large molecules, Electrons clouds
Dipole-Dipole: Weak between permanent dipoles, uneven distribution, One pole is more negative than other pole
Hydrogen Bond: Strong dipole-dipole, between H & N,O,F

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8
Q

Explain what is interesting about water

A

Universal solvent: Can dissolve Ionic and Polar substances
Cohesion: creates surface tension to stick water together
Adhesion: Can move through charged particles (capillary action)
Lots of energy to raise or lower temp
Densest at 4 C
Can move through convection and diffusion

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9
Q

a) How do you find pH?
b) Explain the difference between strong and weak acids
c) What are bases?

A

a) -log[H+]=ph
b) Strong ionize 100%, weak don’t
c) Increase OH- in water, organic has amino group

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10
Q

What is Neutralization?
How is equilibrium found?
How do you make buffers?

A

Acid + base -> salt + water
When rates of reactions are equal
Weak acid and conjugate base salt compensate for added acid or base

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11
Q

a) What are isomers?

b) What do suffix and prefixes “ene”, and “cyclo” mean

A

a) isomers are molecules with the same formulas but different configurations
b) ene means there is a double bond on the molecule, cyclo means the molecule is in a ring shape

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12
Q

Name the 3 types of Isomers and what they do

A
  1. Structural Isomer, variation in arrangement
  2. Geometric Isomer, variation across double bond
  3. Stereoisomers, mirror image molecules that can’t be superimposed
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13
Q

1) What is a polymer?

2) Explain the 4 types of linkages

A

1) Large molecule consisting of many similar subunits
2) Ether Linkage (Glycosidic): Between hydroxyl groups to create large sugars
Amide (Peptide): combine amino acids, amine group + carboxyl group
Ester: Fatty acids with glycerols, carboxyl group +hydroxyl
Phosodiester: nucleotides, hydroxyl+phosphate

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14
Q

Name the Functional groups and their suffixes

A 
Hydroxyl "ol"
Carbonyl "al" or "one"
Carboxyl "ic"
Amino "amine"
Sulfhydryl none
Phosphate
Methyl
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15
Q

a) What are carbohydrates?
b) What are the differences between beta and alpha glucose?
c) Name the 3 disaccharides

A

a) short energy storage, CHO of 1:2:1, end in “ose”, aldehydes or ketones
b) beta-Glucose: ududr alpha: ddudr
c) Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose

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16
Q

Name all polysaccarides we learn about

A

Starches: Amylose (a-glucose line) and amylopectin (shorter branched version)
Glycogen: a-glucose with two levels branching, 1 day energy
Cellulose: Linear b-glucose in cell walls, upward angle draw
Chitin: cellulose with nitrogen groups

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17
Q

a) What are lipids?
b) Describe Triglycerides
c) Describe Phospholipids
d) Describe Waxes
e) Describe Sterols

A

a) long term energy storage, hydrophobic, not polymers of repeating units
b) 3 fatty acids linked to glycerol backbone with ester linkages, can be saturated or unsaturated
c) Triglyceride with two fatty acids and one phosphate, makes up cell membrane, creates phospholipid bilayer
d) long chain alcohol to long chain fatty acid, waterproof
e) four carbon rings, part of steroids

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18
Q

What are roles of proteins?

A
  1. Enzymes:Mediate chemical reactions in organisms (ie. Amylase digests amylose)
  2. Structure:Used as building materials
  3. Hormones: Released by glands to cause an effect elsewhere in the body
  4. Antibodies:Proteins produced by the immune system target & kill pathogens
  5. Transport:Proteins embedded in cell membranes pump molecules against concentration gradient
  6. Recognition:Proteins on you cell identify them to your immune system
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19
Q

Explain the 4 protein structures

A

Primary Structure: Specific length and order, many combinations
2ndary: 2 3D configurations by H-bonds (a-helix, b-pleated sheets)
3ary: Complex structure made by disulfide bridges, H-bonds, Ionic and hydrophobic R-groups.
4ary; Polypeptide and other polypeptides

20
Q

What are components of nucleic acids?
What are functions?
RNA vs. DNA

A

a) Ribose sugar, nitrogenous base, phosphates
b) Functions: Energy carriers, coenzymes, genetic info (DNA RNA)
c) helix vs. strand, deoxyribose vs. ribose, U vs. T

21
Q

What is an exothermic reaction?
What is an endothermic reaction?
What is activation energy?

A

Reaction that releases energy
Reaction that gains energy
energy required to make reaction run

22
Q

Explain 2 laws of thermodynamics

A
  1. Energy can’t be destroyed or created, only converted from one form to another
  2. Entropy of universe increases with any change
23
Q

Which is spontaneous, exergonic or endergoinc reactions

A

Exergonic

24
Q
  1. What is oxidation?
  2. What is reduction?
  3. Name 3 electron carriers
A
  1. Loss of electrons
  2. Gain of electrons
  3. NADH, NADPH, FADH2
25
Q

a) What are 2 roles of enzymes
b) what are 2 ways enzymes bind
c) What are factors that inhibit enzyme function?

A

a) catalysts, and activate reactions
b) Lock and key model and induced fit
c) Competitive, non-competitive, allosteric, feedback

26
Q

What is the equation of cellular respiration?
What are two ways to create ATP?
How much energy does it take to make ATP

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O (∆G = -2870 kJ/mol)
Substrate and oxidative phosphorylation
∆G= 31 KJ/mol

27
Q

What are the oxidizing agents?

What are the 4 main stages?

A

NAD+ and FAD

Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation, Kreb’s cycle, ETC

28
Q

Explain Glycolysis

A

Happens in Cytosol, begins with Glucose (6C), ends with 2 pyruvate (3C), 2 NADH and net 2 ATP
1.Glucose is phosphorylated by ATP to make G6P
2.Rearranged to F6P
3.Phosphorylated to F1,6BP
4.Splits to DHAP& G3P (DHAP changes to G3P)
5.G3P oxidized by NAD+ to make NADH, phosphate added to make BPG
6.BPG changes to 3PG turning ADP to ATP (substrate)
7.3PG to 2PG
8.2PG to PEP through removal of H2O
9.PEP phosphorylates ADP, changes to pyruvate
Cycle after 4 happens twice

29
Q

Explain Pyruvate Oxidation

A 
Pyruvate is carried to matrix by proteins, cycle 2x
Decarboxylate Pyruvate to make 2-C
NAD+ oxidizes to make acetyl and NADH
CoA makes acetyl-CoA
moves to krebs
2 NADH
30
Q

Explain Kreb’s Cycle

A

Series of catalyzed reactions, remove as many electrons as possible, cycle 2x, starts and ends with oxaloacetate
1. Acetyl and oxaloacetate make 6-C citrate (rearranged to isocitrate)
2. Oxidized, decarboxylated to a-ketoglutarate
3. oxidized decarboxylated to succinyl-CoA
4. CoA released to make succinate (make GTP from GDP, GTP gives Pi to ADP to make ATP)
5. FADH oxidizes succinate to make fumarate and FADH2
6. water added to make malate
7. oxidized by NAD+ to make oxaloacetate
NADH= 6, FADH2=2, ATP=2

31
Q

Explain the ETC

A 
Removes electrons from carriers
Series of redox reactions
order of weakest EN to strongest
final acceptor is O2 making H2O
NADH makes 3ATP through chemiosmosis
FADH2 make 2ATP
ATP synthase gains energy through diffusion and phosphorlates ADP to ATP
32
Q

Summarize ATP and carriers in Cellular respiration

A

Glycolosis NADH 2 4
PO/Krebs NADH 8 24
FADH2 2 4
Substrate
Glycolysis 2
P.O/Krebs 2
total= 36

33
Q

Explain Fermentation

A

NADH reduces pyruvate to lactate in animals and Ethanol +Co2 in yeast. makes 2ATP

34
Q
  1. What are the three main components of plant structure?

2. What factors affect the stomata?

A

1.Leaves collect sunlight, stomata for CO2 collection, roots take water
2. Water, dry= closed stomata
CO2, low=closed, high=open
Light, high= open, low=closed

35
Q

How does light power photosynthesis?

A

Visible spectrum light powers photosynthesis, absorbed by chloroplasts. Blue and Red wavelengths work best
Pigments are Chlorophyll, Carotenoids, and Phycobillins

36
Q

Explain what makes a chloroplast

A

Triple membrane, out, intermembrane space, inner, thylakoid
Stroma: protein rich fluid around thylakoid membrane
Grana: stacked coins in thylakoid membrane
Lamella: connects grana
Thylakoid space: pocket in thylakoid

37
Q

Explain the overall use of the light-dependent reaction

A

Converts solar photon energy to chemical energy
Leads to photophosphorylation
When chlorophyll absorbs energy, 2 electrons excite and move down ETC

38
Q

What are the photosystems and what are their roles?

A

Contain groups of pigments which absorb certain wavelengths. PSII occurs first and makes ATP through chemiosmosis as electrons move down ETC
PSI occurs second and generates NADPH when electrons reach end of ETC

39
Q

How does Photoactivation occur?

A
  1. Rays strike PSII
  2. Energy from chlorophyllp-a excites electrons
  3. Electrons removed from ETC
  4. Enzyme Z catalyzes splitting of water to oxygen H ions, and electrons replace ones lost
  5. Oxygen combines to make O2
40
Q

What does ETC produce?

A

Creates energy to pump H+ into thylakoid space from stroma, protons accumulate and diffuse back to stroma through ATP synthase, forming ATP

41
Q

How does PSI work?

A

Rays hit PSI at 700nm, electrons excite and oxidize, replaced by PSII electrons
Electrons reduce NADP+ to NADPH

42
Q

What is Cyclic Photophosphorylation?

A

PSI works independent of PSII, electrons boosted, instead of moving down PSI chain, move to PSII ETC, Electrons return to PSI (cyclic)

43
Q

What is the goal of the calvin cycle?

A

Use products of light-dependent reaction to synthesize glucose

44
Q

What are the stages of the cycle?

A
  1. RuBP bonds with CO2 to make 6C through enzyme rubisco
    • Splits into 2 3C 3PG
    • CO2 + rubisco → 6C → 2 3PG
  2. Series of reactions transfers energy from ATP & e- from NADPH to 3PG, forming G3P
    • 3PG + ATP → 1,3 BPG + 2 e- → G3P
  3. 5 G3P (3C) used to regenerate 3 RuBP (5C)
45
Q

What does the calvin cycle create?

A

3 turns=1 G3P, 6 turns=1 Glucose,

18 ATP+12NADPH=glucose

46
Q

What is photorespiration and why is it a problem?

A

When rubisco uses O2 instead of CO2, doesn’t produce energy reduces output by up to 50%

47
Q

Explain the two methods plant use to combat photorespiration

A

Oxaloacetate converted to malate, exported to bundle sheath cells through plasmodesmata
Malate decarboxylated to PEP, CO2 now available to rubisco & Calvin
Co2 “pumped” into bundled sheath cell, giving it straight to rubisco over O2
C4 is better in hot conditions, less efficient though

CAM Plants
Open stomata at night, during day CO2 is used in calvin cycle, not as useful as C4

Grade 12 Bio (1 decks)

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