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General Microbiology > Exam 3 Review > Flashcards

Exam 3 Review Flashcards

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1
Q

What are microbial traits?

A
  • are controlled or influenced by heredity
    Shape
    Structural features
    Metabolism
    Ability to move
    Interaction with other organisms
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2
Q

What is heredity? Two examples

A

Individual organisms transmit these traits to their offspring through genes.

Antibiotic resistance development, genetic changes and relatedness.

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3
Q

Central Dogma of molecular biology

A

Describes how DNA transcribes to mRNA which in turn is translated into proteins that carry vital functions.

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4
Q

Alteration of bacterial genes and gene expression can

A

Be cause of disease
Prevent disease treatment
Manipulated for human benefit

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5
Q

What are proteins made of?

A

CHON - sometimes S

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6
Q

How are proteins essential in cell structure and function?

A

Enzymes that speed up chemical reactions

Transporter proteins that move chemicals across membranes.

Flagella that aid in movement.

Some bacterial toxins and cell structures.

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7
Q

What are amino acids?

A

Proteins consist of subunits called amino acids.

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8
Q

What are amino acids made of?

A

Alpha carbon that has an attached:
-Carboxyl group (COOH)
-Amino group (NH2)
- R side group

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9
Q

What are nucleic acids?

A

Consist of nucleotides.

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10
Q

What are nucleotides made of?

A
  • Five carbon Penrose sugar
    -phosphate group
    -nitrogen containing base (purine or pyrimidine)
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11
Q

What is a nucleoside?

A

Pentose and nitrogen containing base.

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12
Q

What are the properties of Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)?

A
  • Contains deoxyribose sugar.
    -exists as double helix.
    Adenine hydrogen bonds with thymine (two)
    Cytosine hydrogen bonds with Guanine (three)
  • order of these nitrogenous bases forms the genetic instructions of organisms - ATGCG-
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13
Q

What is Ribonucleic acid?

A
  • Contains ribose
  • is single stranded.
    Adenine hydrogen bonds with Uracil.
    Cytosine hydrogen bonds with Guanine.
    -several kinds of RNA play a role in protein synthesis.
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14
Q

What is Genetics?

A

The study of genes, how they carry information, how information is expressed, and how genes are replicated.

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15
Q

What is a genome?

A

All genetic information in a cell.

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16
Q

What are chromosomes?

A

Structures containing DNA that physically carry hereditary information.

Chromosomes contain genes.

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17
Q

What are genes?

A

Segments of DNA that encode functional products usually these products are proteins, but they can also be RNA’s.

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18
Q

What is Genetic code?

A

The set of rules that determines how a nucleotide sequence is converted to an amino acid sequence of a protein.

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19
Q

What is cellular metabolism?

A

Mainly concerned with translating genetic messages of genes into specific proteins.

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20
Q

What is a genotype?

A

-Genetic makeup of an organism- all its DNA.
- Represents potential properties.

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21
Q

What is phenotype?

A
  • actual expression of genes
    -set of observable physical characteristics.
  • collection of proteins.
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22
Q

DNA of bacteria -

A

Bacteria usually have single circular chromosome consisting of DNA with associated proteins.

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23
Q

Chromosome of bacteria-

A

Looped and folded and attached at 1 or several points to plasma membrane.

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24
Q

Genome of bacteria-

A

Entire genome does not contain back to back genes.

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25
Q

What are Short tandem repeated (STR’s):

A

repeating sequences of noncoding DNA.

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26
Q

How is DNA used in finger printing?

A

Whole Genome Sequence (WGS)
- search for open reading frames (regions of encoded DNA).

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27
Q

What is genomics?

A

Sequencing and molecular characterization of genomes.

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28
Q

What is vertical gene transfer?

A

Flow of genetic information from one generation to the next.

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29
Q

What is horizontal gene transfer?

A

Exchange of genetic information within the same generation.

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30
Q

What is the flow of genetic information?

A

Expression
Recombination
Replication.

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31
Q

What is expression?

A

Genetic information is used within a cell to produce the proteins needed for the cell to function.

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32
Q

What is recombination?

A

Genetic information can be transferred horizontally between cells of the same generation.

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33
Q

What is replication?

A

Genetic information can be transferred vertically to the next generation of cells.

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34
Q

What is DNA replication?

A

DNA forms a double helix.

One parental double stranded DNA molecule is converted to two identical “offspring” molecules.

Order of nitrogen containing bases forms the genetic instructions of the organism.

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35
Q

What is the DNA double helix structure?

A

Backbone consists of deoxyribose phosphate.

Two strands of nucleotides are held together by hydrogen bonds between A-T and C-G.

Strands are anti parallel.

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36
Q

What does DNA replication require?

A

The presence of several cellular proteins (enzymes) that direct a sequence of events.

37
Q

DNA Gyrase

A

Relaxes supercoiling ahead of replication fork.

38
Q

What is DNA Ligase?

A

Makes covalent bonds to join DNA strands, Okazaki fragments, and new segments in excision repair.

39
Q

DNA Polymerases

A

Synthesizes DNA; proofreads and repairs DNA.

40
Q

Endonucleases

A

Cut DNA backbone in a strand of DNA- facilitate repair and insertions.

41
Q

Exonucleases

A

Cut DNA from an exposed end of DNA; facilitate repair.

42
Q

Helicase

A

Unwinds double stranded DNA.

43
Q

Methylase

A

Adds methyl group to selected bases in newly made DNA.

44
Q

Photolyase

A

Uses visible light energy to separate UV induced pyrimidine diners.

45
Q

Primase

A

An RNA polymerase that makes RNA primers from a DNA template.

46
Q

Ribozyme

A

RNA enzyme that removes introns and splices exons together.

47
Q

RNA Polymerase

A

Copies RNA from a DNA template.

48
Q

SnRNP

A

RNA protein complex that removes introns and splices exons together.

49
Q

Topoisomerase

A

Relaxes supercoiling ahead of replication fork; separates DNA circles at the end of DNA replication.

50
Q

Transposase

A

Cuts DNA backbone, leaving single stranded sticky ends.

51
Q

What are basic steps of DNA replication?

A

-One strand serves as a template to produce a second strand.

-topoisomerase or gyrase relax the strands.

  • A replication fork is created.
  • free nucleotides present in the cell cytoplasm are matched up to the exposed bases on the single stranded parental DNA.
  • Any bases that are improperly paired are removed and replaced by replication enzymes.
52
Q

What events happen at DNA replication fork?

A

-DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the growing DNA strand in the 5’ to 3’ direction.

  • Initiated by RNA primer.

-Leading strand is synthesized continuously.

  • lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously creating Okazaki fragments.
  • DNA polymerase removes RNA primers.
  • Okazaki fragments are joined by the DNA polymerase and DNA ligase.
53
Q

How does DNA replication get energy?

A
  • Energy for replication is supplied by nucleotides.
  • Hydrolysis of two phosphate groups on ATP provides energy.
54
Q

Facts about DNA replication-

A

Most bacterial DNA replication is bidirectional.

Each offspring cell receives one copy of DNA molecule.

Replication is highly accurate due to the proofreading capability of DNA polymerase.

55
Q

What is Ribonucleic acid (RNA) made of?

A

-single stranded nucleotide.
- 5 carbon ribose sugar
- contains uracil instead of thymine
Adenine hydrogen bonds with Uracil
Cytosine hydrogen bonds with Guanine.

56
Q

What is process of transcription?

A

Genetic information in DNA is copied or transcribed into complementary base sequence of RNA.

57
Q

Process of translation

A

Cell uses the information encoded in the RNA to synthesize

58
Q

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):

A

Integral part of ribosomes (cellular machinery for protein synthesis).

59
Q

Transfer RNA (tRNA):

A

Transports amino acids during protein synthesis.

60
Q

Messenger RNA (mRNA):

A

Carries coded information from DNA to ribosomes.

61
Q

What is Transcription?

A
  • Synthesis of a complementary mRNA strand from a DNA template.
  • Transcription begins when RNA polymerase binds to the promoter sequence on DNA.
  • Transcription proceeds in the 5’ to 3’ direction; only one of the two DNA strands is transcribed.
  • Transcription stops when it reaches the terminator sequence on DNA.
62
Q

What is Translation?

A
  • Synthesis of proteins by decoding the language of nucleic acids and converting it into language of proteins.
  • mRNA is translated into the language of proteins.
  • Codons are groups of three mRNA nucleotides that code for a particular amino acid.
  • 61 sense codons encode the 20 amino acids.
  • genetic code involves degeneracy, meaning each amino acid is coded by several codons.
63
Q

What is process of translation?

A

Translation of mRNA begins at AUG and ends at UAA, UAG, UGA.

  • Codons of mRNA are read sequentially.
  • tRNA molecules transport the required amino acids to the ribosome.
  • tRNA molecules have an anticodon that base pairs with the codon.
  • amino acids are joined by peptide bonds.
64
Q

Translation in a bacteria.

A

Translation can begin before transcription is complete.

65
Q

Transcription and Translation in eukaryotes-

A

Transcription in eukaryotes occurs in the nucleus.

Translation occurs in the cytoplasm.

66
Q

What are exons?

A

Regions of DNA that code for proteins.

67
Q

What are introns?

A

Regions of DNA that do not code for proteins.

68
Q

What are Small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs)?

A

Remove introns and splice exons together.

69
Q

How is bacterial gene expression regulated?

A
  • Constitutive genes are expressed at a fixed rate.
  • Other genes are expressed only as needed.
70
Q

Repression-

A

Inhibits gene expression and decreases enzyme synthesis.

71
Q

What is process of repression-

A

Mediated by repressors, proteins that block transcription.

Default positions of a repressible gene is on.

72
Q

What is induction?

A

Turns of gene expression

73
Q

What is process of induction-

A

Initiated by an inducer

Default position of an inducible gene is off.

74
Q

What are parts of Operon model of gene expression?

A

Promoter
Operator
Operon

75
Q

What is promoter?

A

Segment of DNA where RNA polymerase initiates transcription of structural genes.

76
Q

What is operator?

A

Segment of DNA that controls transcription of structural genes.

77
Q

What is Operon?

A

Set of operator and promoter sites and the structural genes they control.

78
Q

What happens in an inducible Operon?

A

Structural genes are not transcribed unless an inducer is present.

79
Q

Process of inducible Operon-

A

In absence of lactose (inducer)- the repress or binds to the operator, preventing transcription.

In presence of lactose inducer- it binds to the repressor; the repressor cannot bind to the operator and transcription occurs.

80
Q

Repressible Operons-

A

Structural genes transcribed until they are turned off.

81
Q

Tryptophan in repressible operon-

A

Excess tryptophan is a corepressor that binds and activates the repressor to bind to the operator, stopping tryptophan synthesis.

82
Q

What are steps of positive regulation?

A

Catabolite repression
Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
CAMP binds to lac promoter

83
Q

Catabolite repression-

A

Inhibits cells from using carbon sources other than glucose.

84
Q

Cyclic AMP (cAMP)

A

Builds up in a cell when glucose is not available

85
Q

CAMP binds to the lac promoter -

A

Initiating transcription and allowing the cell to use lactose.

86
Q

What is process of post-transcriptional Control?

A
  • microRNAs (miRNAs) base pair with mRNA to make it double stranded.

Double stranded RNA is enzymatically destroyed, preventing production of a protein.

87
Q

What is a mutation?

A

A permanent change in base sequence of DNA

88
Q

Mutations can be-

A

Beneficial
Neutral
Harmful

89
Q

What are mutagens?

A

Agents that cause mutations

General Microbiology (1 decks)

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