exam 3 lecture notes Flashcards
1
Q
Syntax
A
The structure or grammatical rules of language
How words are combined into a sentence
2
Q
Holophrases
A
one word sentence Combined with gesture to convey meaning “Juice” — “I want some juice!” “This is juice.” “I like juice.”
3
Q
Telegraphic speech
A
Utterances that leave out the “little words” Includes content/open-class words Nouns, verbs Omits the function/closed-class words Of, the, a, and Begins with two-word utterances “See doggie!” Still seen with longer utterances “Daddy give me milk!”
4
Q
Syntax : Development
A
- Production of more complex sentences begins around 2-2.5 years old
- Starting to put 4 or more words together
- “Look at me hit the ball.”
- Starting to put 4 or more words together
- Begin connecting ideas with “and” at ~3 years
- Most children use complex sentences by 4 yrs
-Linking main and subordinate clauses using “if”,
“because”, “until”, “while”, etc.
5
Q
Syntax : Development
~5 years
A
Largely developed by ~5 years
Some development continues into school-age
Subject-verb agreement (They was/were)
Personal pronouns (He/Him went)
By 6-7 years, grammar generally adult-like
6
Q
Young children
Collective speech
A
series of monologues
Lack of turn-taking; unrelated statements
7
Q
By ~5 years of age
- narratives
- scaffolding
A
Narratives: description of events like story
Scaffolding: added structure to child speech and memory provided by parents
8
Q
Emotions
A
More than just “feelings”
9
Q
Emotions
- physiological factors
- subjective factors
- cognitve factors
- desire to take action
A
- Physiological factors Heart rate, respiration, hormones - Subjective feelings - Cognitive factors Factors that elicit or are associated with subjective feelings - Desire to take action Fight, Flight, or Freeze Escape, approach, or change people in the environment
10
Q
Emotional Intelligence
A
- “Affective social competence”
- Abilities key to competent social functioning
Ability to motivate oneself
Willingness to persist when frustrated
Impulse control
Delaying gratification
Identify & understand feelings
Mood regulation
Emotion regulation in social interaction
Empathy with others’ emotions
11
Q
Discrete Emotions
A
Darwinistic view of emotions
Each emotion is innate
Physiological, bodily, & facial coordination
Each is distinct and manifest early in life
12
Q
Innate Systems + Experience
3 basic systems
A
Joy/pleasure Anger/frustration Wariness/fear - Born with primitive versions - Social experience refines emotions
13
Q
Functionalist Approach
A
Basic function of emotion is to achieve a goal in a specific context
Fear —> Leave situation
—> Self-preservation
Emotional reactions affected by social goals
Thus highly subject to influence of others
14
Q
Dynamic-SystemsTheory
A
- Not clear which emotions are distinct early on and which develop as a result of experience
- Repeated coordination of various systems interacting together —> new functions
- Applies to emotional, motor, cognitive, language, & other aspects of development
- Systems (perception, action, memory, language, attention, social interaction) coordinate
- For emotional development: biology, cognition, & experiences interact over time in an increasingly predicted way
15
Q
Positive Emotions in Infancy
- weeks 3-8
A
- Very early emotions likely reflexive and/or responses to biological states
- -Often see smiles during REM in newborns
- weeks 3-8: begin to see smiles in social interaction s
- touching, voices etc.
- smiles directed at others
- may strengthen relationships and promote care
16
Q
Positive Emotions in Infancy
- by 7 months
A
- smiles directed primarily at familiar people
- –Unfamiliar people may elicit fear response
- –Smiles elicit continued interactions w/ caregivers
- –Smiles often paired w/ excitement, playfulness
- –Makes caregivers feel special — strengthens bond
17
Q
Positive Emotions in Infancy
- 3-4 months
- 10-12 months
- ~2 years
A
- 3-4 months: smile & laugh in a variety of situations
Tickling, blowing on skin, swinging in air, bath time - 10-12 months: enjoying unexpected things
- ~2 years: enjoy making others laugh
Begin “clowning around”
18
Q
Negative Emotions in Infancy
- 2 months
- 4 months
- 6-7 months
A
- 1st negative emotions are responses to hunger/pain
- By 2 months: differentiate between anger/sadness
- By 4 months: wariness of unfamiliar objects/events
- By 6-7 months: fear of strangers appears
- Parental attachment
- Intensifies & lasts until ~2 yrs
19
Q
Negative Emotions in Infancy
- by 4-8 months
- by age 1
- 2nd year
A
- By 4-8 months: anger differs from fear/sadness
- By age 1: child expresses anger, often towards other
- 2nd year: increased ability to control environment leads to increased anger when frustrated or when something is taken
- Sadness often seen in similar situations as anger
- Young kiddos separated from parents for long periods display intense & prolonged sadness
20
Q
Self-conscious Emotions
A
Embarrassment, pride, shame, guilt
Emerge during 2nd year of life
- Increased understanding of self as distinct from others
- Increased knowledge of what is expected by others
21
Q
Embarrassment
A
Emerges between 15-24 months Often seen when child is center of attention Eyes down Hang head Blush Hide face in hands
22
Q
Pride
A
Emerges between 12-24 months
Often smiling at others when complete a goal or did something new
By 3 years, pride tied to performance level
23
Q
Guilt
A
Feelings of remorse & regret about one’s behavior & desire to undo consequences
Emerges around 2-3 years
Often tied to levels of empathy
24
Q
Shame
A
Feel exposed, often want to hide
Focus on self with lack of concern for others
Emerges around 2-3 years
Children can respond differentially with shame or guilt by age 2
Response depends on experiences & parenting
25
Guilt vs. Shame
Guilt
“You did a bad thing.”
Experience if parents explain consequences of actions
Teach need to repair relationship
Shame
“You are a bad boy/girl.”
Experience if parents humiliate child publicly
Communicate less respect/love even when disciplining
26
Guilt vs. Embarrassment
Guilt: Associated with activation in areas of the brain linked to perspective-taking, empathy, & negative emotion processing
embarrassment: Associated with activation in areas of the brain linked to conceptual knowledge and richness of social detail
27
Emotional Changes
- Causes of emotions change with development
- Basis for self-esteem & self-evaluation shifts
----Change w/ cognitive development & experiences
e.g., Changes in sources of pride & happiness
Acceptance by peers becomes more important
28
Causes of fears change
Preschool years: imaginary fears
e.g., Fear of the dark, sharks in the bathtub
Middle childhood: reality-based fears
e.g., Academic achievement, health, safety
29
Emotional Changes
| - anger
— children becomes less angry toward others as they learn to understand intention
Preschool — angry when harmed, regardless
Middle childhood — less angry when unintentional
30
Negative emotions may decrease in middle childhood, but increase in adolescence
Increase in frequency and intensity in adolescence
Associated decrease in positive emotion
Day-to-day emotional volatility greater in younger (
31
Emotions highly subject to environment
More negative emotions in high stress situations
| War, divorce, parental fighting
32
Depression more common in adolescence
Less than 1-3% in childhood
15% or higher in adolescence
6% with major depression
3.2 million Canadians age 12-19
33
Major Depression
```
Almost every day:
Depressed mood most of the time
Reduced interest or pleasure in most activites
Significant weight loss
Insomnia or excessive sleeping
Motor agitation & physical complaints
Fatigue or loss of energy
Feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt
Reduced ability to concentrate
Recurrent thoughts of death
```
̣ From age 12-19: 5% of males, 12% of females
34
Depression
| Consequences
Behavioral problems
Aggression; delinquency; stealing; substance abuse
Difficult relationships with peers
Suicide
In Canada, 24% of all deaths among 15-24 year olds
…11 people every day
…youth 3rd highest suicide rate in industrial world
35
Potential Causes of Depression
Heredity
- Often runs in families
- Prefrontal Cortex activity associated with higher emotional reactivity, negative emotion, & withdrawal
- Elevated hormone-based stress reactivity
- Likely both genetic & environmental
- --Reduced maternal sensitivity & engagement
Reduced family engagement & support
-Associated with higher levels of punishment
Chronic familial stress & conflict
Negative mindset
- World is cruel & unfair & can’t be changed
- Feelings of incompetence & worthlessness
- Excessive attention on negative causes
Poor emotional regulation & skills for positive social interactions
- Feeling like a victim
- Peer rejection
Likely interaction of variables
-Personal vulnerability & environmental stressors
36
```
Understanding Emotions
- by 4-7 months
- by ~7 months
= by 8-12 months
- by 12 months
- by 14 months
```
By 4-7 months: Infants distinguish between happiness & surprise
By ~7 months: Infants begin to realize that emotions are meaningful
By 8-12 months: Infants can relate facial expressions to tone of voice
By 12 months: Children use mother’s tone of voice in decisions about how to interact with new objects
By 14 months: Social referencing information affects behaviours even an hour later
37
Beginning at 2 years, children can label
emotions in other people
- Continues to develop into late preschool years
- Recognize: happiness, anger/sadness, fear, surprise, disgust
- Not yet recognized: Pride, shame, guilt
38
Understanding emotionms
| - causality important for understanding motives
Important for self-regulation & social competence
- Develops rapidly during preschool & elementary school years
- Preschoolers can understand that people feel emotions based on reminders of past events
- Increasing understanding allows children to better understand emotional complexities
39
Initiating, inhibiting or modulating:
Internal feeling states
- Subjective experience of emotion
Emotion-related cognition
- Thoughts about goals, desires, interpretation
Emotion-related physiological processes
- Heart rate, hormone regulation/reactivity
Emotion-related behavior
- Actions or facial expressions related to feelings
Emerges & develops across childhood
40
Self Regulation
- by 6 months
- between 1-2 years
Transition from caregiver regulation
Comfort when upset, soothing, distractions, etc.
By 6 months: begin early signs of self-regulation
Shift gaze from distressing situation
Self-soothe by stroking hair, playing with clothes, etc.
Between 1-2 years: avert attention from stimuli that is distressing
Distract themselves by looking away or elsewhere
41
self-regulation changes due to
- Increasing brain maturation
Frontal lobes
- Shifts in adult expectations
42
Social Competence
Skills to develop & maintain positive peer relationships
- Inhibit inappropriate behaviors
- Delay gratification
- Control emotions & behavior
Better social interactions…
- Negotiate & plan strategies to settle conflicts
- Seek social support
43
Social Competence
| Positively associated with academic performance
Pay better attention
Better behaved
More liked by teachers/peers
Liked school better than less regulated peers
44
temperament
Biologically-based aspects of emotional, motor, & attentional reactivity & self- regulation
Relatively consistent across situations & over time
Genetic basis
Neural development & hormonal responsiveness
- Influenced during prenatal period & early years of life
45
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temperament
Early classifications (e.g., Thomas & Chess, 1977)
```
```
Easy babies (40%)
Easily adjust, establish routines, calmed, & cheerful
```
```
Difficult babies (10%)
Slow to adjust to new experiences or be calmed, react negatively & intensely, irregular in routines
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Slow-to-warm-up babies (15%)
Somewhat difficult at first, but become easier with repeated exposure to people, situations, objects, etc.
46
temperament
| More recent research classifies temperament along 6 dimensions
```
Fearful distress/inhibition
Irritable distress
Attention span & persistence
Activity level
Positive affect/approach
Rhythmicity
```
47
temperament
| - characteristics are relatively
relatively stable over time
- Fearful traits in infancy are comparable in toddlerhood and parallel social anxiety at preschool
- Children who are positive in infancy are typical individuals who will be positive later in life
48
temperament plays an important role in
social adjustment
Long term effects of unregulated temperament:
Adolescence — difficulty getting along with peers; more likely to engage in illegal behaviors
Young adults — difficulty getting along with roommates; higher rates of unemployment
Adults — fewer friends & less social support
49
Level of compatibility between child temperament & environment raised in
- Difficult temperament better adjusted in supportive home with consistent parenting
Mismatch with punitive homes, rejecting parenting
- Temperament & parenting style interact to affect child outcomes
50
Temperament & Genetics
| Genetic links with…
```
Emotional reactivity
Shyness
Sociability
Self-regulation
Genes related to dopamine & neurotransmitters that affect attentional control
Gene expression impacted by environment
Parenting quality, chronic stress
Genetic vulnerability most likely to be expressed in suboptimal environments
```
51
Emotional Development & Family
Related to sense of security & how child feels about themselves & others
More secure relationship with parents leads to more positive emotions, less social anxiety, less anger
52
Socialization
process though which children acquire values, & ways of thinking/feeling
Direct & indirect influences
1. Parental expression of emotion with their child & others
- model when and how to express emotion
- chi;d temperament can affect expression in home
2.Parental reactions to child expression of emotion
- reactions to negative emotions can impact emotional expressivity
- acknowledging emotions helps regulate arousal and express constructively
3.Discussions with children about emotion & regulation
- discussing emotions teaches children about:
- meaning of emotion s
- appropriate circumstances for expressing them
- consequences of expressing/not expressing
- emotional coaching
53
Attachment
An emotional bond with parent or caregiver that endures across time & space
Typically infant-parent, but could also be adult-adult
1930s-1940s
Children raised in orphanages & institutions showed deviant Bx
Highlighted the importance of social interactions early in life
Adequate physical care was not enough for healthy
54
Monkeys isolated from birth (~6 months) show
severe social disturbances & parenting styles
- Compulsive biting & rocking
- Avoidance of social interactions or communication
- As mothers, avoided or abused offspring
Supports theory that healthy social & emotional development is based on early social interactions with adults
55
Cloth Mother
Studies with Rhesus macaques in 1950s-70s (Harlow)
Macaques offered inanimate “mother” made of cloth or wire
Preference for cloth mother, even when wire mother held food
“Contact comfort”
Extended isolation (6 monts) lead to severe maladaptive Bx
May be buffered by peer interaction
Earlier exposure to social groups leads to normal social development
56
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
Children are biologically predisposed to develop attachment with caregivers
Increases chances of own survival
57
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
| Secure base
- Presence of a consistent caregiver provides sense of security
- Caregiver provides…
- Source of safety when feeling insecure
- Comfort & pleasure
- Opportunity to explore environment
- Experience for gaining knowledge & developing general competence
58
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
- preattachment
- attachment in the making
- clear-cut attachment
- reciprocal relationships
1) Preattachment — birth to 6 weeks
Infants produce innate signals to gain attention of caregiver
2) Attachment-in-the-making — 6 weeks to 6 mos.
Infants respond preferentially to familiar people
Expectations about caregiver interactions & responses
3) Clear-cut attachment — 6 months to 1.5 years
Infants actively seek contact with caregivers
Primary caregiver(s) typically serves as secure base
4) Reciprocal relationships — 1.5-2 yrs & older
Infant understands caregivers’ feelings, goals, & motives
Child’s role develops into working partnership w/ caregiver
59
Bowlby’s AttachmentTheory
| Internal working model
Mental representation of the self, attachment figures, and relationships
Does relationship with caregiver provide needs & security?
Accessible & responsible caregivers
—> Expect gratifying relationships
Unavailable caregivers
—> Negative perception of relationships with others & themselves
60
Ainsworth’s AttachmentTheory
- Provided empirical support for & expansion of Bowlby’s theories
- Studied mother-infant interactions during explorations & interactions away from the mother
61
Key components of attachment:
1. Extent to which an infant can use primary caregiver as secure base
2. How infants react to brief separations from, and reunions with, caregiver
62
Ainsworth’s AttachmentTheory
| - 4 main attachment styles
1. Secure
2. Insecure/Resistant
3. Insecure/Avoidant
4. Disorganized
63
Strange Situation
Developed by Ainsworth to assess attachment style
Child sits in laboratory room surrounded by interesting toys
Child experiences
Separations & reunions 2.Interactions with a stranger
One w/ caregiver present
Lasts 3 minutes (or until upset)
Observers rate infant behaviors, near & far interactions with caregivers, interactions with RA
64
Secure attachment
60-65%
```
Most infants are in this category
Initially, caregiver is secure base
Child often distressed when caregiver leaves the room
Child glad to see caregiver return
If distressed, caregiver’s presence calms the child
At age 2, rates vary by SES
Middle SES: 62-68%
Lower SES: < 50%
```
65
Insecure/Resistant Attachment
10-15% of North American infants
- Child is clingy from beginning of the strange situation
- Child very upset when caregiver leaves the room
- When caregiver returns, child rushes to her and establishes physical contact, difficult to be soothed/consoled
- -Then squirms away to get down
66
Insecure/Avoidant Attachment
20% of North American infants
- Child avoids caregiver during the strange situation
- Fails to greet caregiver during reunion phase
- Ignores caregiver or turns away when caregiver is in the room
67
Disorganized Attachment
5-10% of North American infants
- Lack of consistency in coping style during SS
- Bx appear confused, contradictory, or disoriented
- Child wants to approach caregiver, but sees them as source of fear to withdraw from as well
68
Parental Sensitivity
- Crucial factor for development of secure attachment
- Can be taught/enhanced with training (Dozier et al.)
- Consistently responsive caregiving:
- --Consistent response when child is upset
- --Consistent engagement in coordinated play
69
Parental Sensitivity
- insecure/resistant attachment
- insecure/avoidant attachment
- disorganized attachment
Insecure/Resistant Attachment
Caregivers often inconsistent in their responses
Caregivers often anxious & overwhelmed
Insecure/Avoidant Attachment
Caregivers often indifferent & unemotional
Sometimes reject infant attempts at closeness
Disorganized Attachment
Caregivers may be abusive, frightening, disoriented
Caregiver may have unresolved trauma or loss
70
Effects of Attachment Style
Secure attachment in children
- Better adjusted socially
- More social skills
- Stronger peer relationships
- More attentive in school
Experiencing sensitive parenting
- More likely to express emotions
- Better emotional communication
71
Policy Implications
Secure attachment associated with consistent experiences of sensitive parenting that provides for an infant’s needs in first 1-2 years of life
- Parental leave as an economic stimulus (+)
- Lasting consequences of family separations (-)
72
Attachment Styles as Adults
secure kids= secure adults
insecure kids- dismissive adults / preoccupied adults
73
The Self
- Self-conceptions influence overall sense of well-being & competence
- Often influenced by earlier attachment experiences
- Develops into adulthood
74
The Self during infancy
2-5 months
Recognize that they can control objects
Being to understand their own bodily movements
8-12 months
Realize they are separate entity from caregiver*
Begin to engage in joint attention to objects
15-20 months
- children can recognize themselves in a mirror
24 months
= children can recognize themselves in photographs
- increased usage of pronouns like "I" and "me"
75
The Self during toddlerhood
2 to 3 years
- exhibit embarrassment and shame
- establish goals and activities independent of adults
- begin labeling objects with their name and using personal pronouns
- parental contributions
76
the self during childhood
3 to 5 years
- sense of self defined by concrete observables
- physical attributes
- activities
- social relationships
- psychological traits
- preferences/possessions
77
the self during middle childhood
6 to 10 years
- social comparison to others
- others opinions increasingly important to sense of self
- forming higher-order concepts of self that integrate specific Bx
- creating a global view of oneself
- evaluate oneself as a person
- more balanced and realistic representation of self
78
the self during adolescence
| - early teens
early teens
- sense of self in abstract concepts
- ex: introvert/extrovert
- social competence and acceptance very important at this stage
- self may vary with context
79
personal fable
- form of egocentrism characterizing self in early adolescence
- beleif that one's thoughts and feelings are unique
- contributes to high degree of concern with what others think of them
- imaginary audience
80
the self during adolescence
| - middle teens
- concerns over contradictions in self in different situations
- beginning to ask, "who am i"
81
the self during adolescence
| - late teens
- better integration and resolution of contradictions in sense of self
- less reliance on others' opinions
- internalized model of personal values, beliefs and standards
82
identity
| 4 status
1. Identity-diffusion status
- one does not have firm commitments regarding identity and is making progress toward developing them
2. Foreclosure status
- no identity experimentation has occurred and occupational/ideological beliefs are based on others
3. Moratorium status
- one is exploring occupational and ideological choices but has not yet made a commitment
4. Identity-achievement status
- one has achieved a coherent and consolidated identity based on personal decisions and they are committed to those decisions
83
Identity Formation
People who reach identity achievement:
- More socially mature
- higher motivation for achievement
- more involved in their careers
people still in identity-diffusion
- lacking in intimate peer relationships
- more apathetic
- at risk for drug abuse
people who are in identity foreclosure:
- more likely to obey authority
- more likely to rely on others to make important life decisions
- difficulty drawing meaning from life events
people who are in moratorium are:
- higher anxiety levels
- relatively unhappy
- less likely to obey authority
- often engage in risky sexual and drug Bx
84
Identity Formation
- parents
- childs Bx
- social contexts
- historical contexts
overprotective-> foreclosed identity
encourage sense of autonomy-> explore and achieve identity
Childs Bx
- activities and interests influence peers and what is learned from the environment
social contexts
- career exposure, role models, school quality, financial options
historical context:
- opportunity for identity options can change over time
85
Ethnic Identity
- Degree to which one feels a sense of belonging to an ethnic group
- Associated thinking, feelings, & Bx with membership in that ethnic or racial group
86
Ethnic Identity in childhood
1. Ethnic knowledge
- Knowledge that their ethnic group has distinguishing behaviours, traits, values, customs, styles and languages
2. ethnic self-identification
- categorization of themselves as a member of their ethnic group
3. ethnic constancy
- understanding that distinguishing characteristic of their ethnic group do not change across time and that they will always be a member of their ethnic group
4. ethnic-role behaviors
- engagement in the behaviours that reflect the distinguishing characteristics of their ethnic group
5. ethnic feelings and preferences
- feelings about belonging to their ethnic group and preferences for the distinguishing characteristics of the group and its member
87
ethnic identity in adolescence
New challenges:
- if dicriminated when younger, may feel ambivalent toward ethnic group
- potential conflict between values
- exploration of what ethnic identity means to the self
- may help explain higher rates of foreclosure identity in ethnic-minority teens
- some individuals develop bicultural identity
88
Sexual Identity
Sexual orientation
- Develops in childhood & especially adolescence
- Sexual attraction toward others typically begins in puberty w/ hormonal rise
- Attraction driven by biological factors, but with environment influences
89
Sexual minority youth face unique challenges relative to heterosexual peers
challenges are often difficult to recognize or accept their own preferences
- often difficult to reveal sexuality to others especially family.
90
Self-Esteem
- Overall evaluation of one’s self & feelings based on that evaluation
- Related to level of satisfaction with life & overall life outlook
- Low self-esteem: hopeless, worthlessness
91
Culture & Self-Esteem
- Emphasize different characteristics that may influence self-esteem
- Western cultures — individual accomplishments & self- promotion
- Eastern cultures — welfare of larger group; social interdependence
92
LearningTheories
Based on ideas from empiricist philosopher John Locke
Experience shapes the human mind (‘tabula rasa’)
Learning from experience is the primary developmental factor
Nurture trumps Nature
Rewards, punishments, cognition, & child all play a role
Grounded in empirical research, therefore theoretical predictions
Contributions to parenting practices
93
Behaviorism
| John Watson
Development determined by the social environment
Learning occurs through classical conditioning
Groundwork for therapeutic deconditioning techniques
Systematic desensitization: positive responses paired with feared stimuli
Believed that parents were responsible for guiding child development (via conditioning
94
Operant Conditioning
- Behavior is under environmental control
- Individuals repeat behaviors that received favorable responses (reinforcement)
Individuals don’t repeat behaviors with unfavorable responses (punishment)
- Children act to “get attention”
Developed idea of “time out”
Remove attention and thereby remove reinforcement for undesirable behavior
95
Intermittent (inconsistent) reinforcement
Behavior gets positive response only sometimes
| Makes it more difficult to extinguish a behavior — child continues behavior because it might get a reward
96
Behavior modification
Therapy tool in which reinforcement contingencies for a behavior are changed with the intention of modifying
97
Reciprocal Determinism
child x environment influences operate bidirectionally
Children seek out interactions with their environment
The outcomes of these interactions influence interactions the child seeks out in the future
98
Perceived Self-efficacy
beliefs one has about how effectively they can control their own Bx, thoughts, & emotions toward a goal
Can apply toward emotion regulation, academic outcomes, etc. — domains can act simultaneously
99
role taking
role taking
- ability to adopt anothers perspective
- allows for better understanding of anothers thoughts, feelings, motives.
100
social cognition in young children is limitied because they are not aware of others p.o.v
typically until about age 6
101
stage theory of role-taking
- stage 1 (ages 6-8)
- appreciation that someone can have a perspective different from your own
- assume due to other poessessing different information
```
stage 2 (ages 8-10)
- realize different viewpoints and able to think about the other p.o.v
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stage 3 (ages 10-12)
- can compare own viewpoint with p.o.vv of another person
- can take perspective of 3rd party and assess differences
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stage 4 (ages 12+)
- attempt to understand others by comparing their view to "most people"`
```
102
hostile attributional bias
- assumption by some children that actions of others are generally hostile towards them
- even if action was ambiguous
- leads some to search for hostility and assume peer was trying to harm them
- often results in retaliation because seen as appropriate response
103
self- attributions and achievement motivation
- entity view of intelligence
- intelligence is fixed
- failures often lead to doubt about self
- incremental view of intelligence
- intelligence can be developed with effort
- failures result in more hard work
104
self-attributions and achievement motivation
- entity/helpless orientation
- incremental/mastery orientation
entity/helpless orientation
- self-worth based on approval from others
- seek situations ensuring success and praise, avoid potential criticisms/failures
- incremental/mastery orientation
- self-worth based on own efforts and learning, not evaluation by others
- enjoy challenges and persist in attempts to solve hard problems
105
bioecological model
| - Bronfenbrenner
- most encompassing model of general context of development
| - environment is a set of nested levels, each with an influence on development
106
Microsystem
- innermost layer
- activities, roles, and relationships the child participates in directly
- family is a crucial component - esp. early childhood
- becomes more complex with age (peers, teachers)
- influences are bidirectional
- marriage can affect how parents treat their children
- child's Bx can impact marital relationship
107
Mesosystem
- connections among microsystems
- -- between family, peers, school, groups
- supportive connections- beneficial
108
exosystem
broad settings that can influence development
- child may not be direct part of but still play a role
example: parents workplace
- - enjoyment of work affects parental emotional state
- - financial success of employer affects job security
109
macrosystem
general beleifs, values, customs, laws of society
- includes culture, subculture, and social class of child
cultural and social constructs affect daily Bx related to raising a child
- which qualities to nurture
110
chronosystem
beleifs, customs, tech that change over time
- digital age impact access to information
impact depends on age of child
- child plays an increasingly large role in development
111
Bioecolgoical model example
| - child maltreatment
Microsystem
- parental risk for maltreatment increased
- low self-esteem; strong negative reactions to stress; drug or alcohol abuse
- abusive partner relationship
mesosystem
- inadequate housing neighboudhood violence
exosystem
- lack of social support system
112
moral judgment
- morality of a behaviour is partially based on the conscious intentions and goals underlying it
- - the reasoning behind a behaviour is critical for determining whether or not it is moral
113
Piaget's stages of morality q
1. morality of contraint
* transitional periods*
2. autonomous morality
114
Kohlberg's stages
1. preconventional moral reasoning
2. conventional moral reasoning
3. post-conventional moral reasoning
115
Alsion Gopnik
| how does the development of morality inform our view of the development of the self?
-self regulation- identity- moraltity
- free will by 4 years of age but not until 6 years that we can act against our will- not until 8-9 years that we can act against moral convention
- degree of "Self" awareness as separate entity may be an illusion we develop with repeared experiences of conflict in regulating our actions
- cultural differences in value of self to regulate between individualistc and collectivistic societies.
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Piaget's theory
- morality changes over time
rigid acceptance of the rules of authority ---> appreciation that moral rules result from social interaction (and are modifiable)
- primarily through advances through interactions with peers
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Piaget's stages
| 1) morality of constraint
- through age 7
- rules are given and unchangeable
- Bx that follow rules= good
- Bx that breaks rules= bad
- beleifs that actions are driven by consequences - not by motives/intentions
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Piaget's stages
| transitional period
- roughly age 7-10
- learn rules can be changed when playing
- learn to take other's perspectives/cooperate
- leads to increased value of fairness
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Piaget's stages
| 2) autonomous morality
- 11-12 years of age
- realize that rules derive from social pacts
- rules can be changed by a group
- faireness and equity important for new rules
- punishment should match the violation
- punishment by adults not always just
- motives and incentives important =
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Kohlberg's stages
| 1) preconventional moral reasonin g
- self-centered
- focus: receive reward; avoid punishment
stage 1: [punishment and obedience orientation (Blind obedience)
stage 2: instrumental and exchange orientation (Self-interest)
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Kohlberg's stages
| 2) conventional moral reasoning
- social relationships
- focus: compliance w/ responsibilities/laws
stage 3: mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships and interpersonal conformity - behave to earn social approval or maintain relationships
stage 4: social systems and conscience
- upholding societal laws to maintain social order
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Kohlberg's stages
| 3) post-conventional moral reasoning
- ideals
- focus: moral principles
stage 5: social contract/ individual rights
-upholding the best interests of the group while recognizing life and liberty as universal principles
stage 6: universal ethical principles
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prosocial moral Bx
- voluntary Bx to benefit another person
| - helping, sharing, comforting others
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levels of prosocial reasoning
1. hedonistic, self-focused orientation
- preschool
2. needs-based orientation
- beginning in preschool and increasing in early elementary school years
3. approval and/or sterotyped orientation
- elementary school age
- doing the good thing"
4. self-reflective empathetic orientation and transition
- late adolescence
5. strongly internalized stage
- late adolescence
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domains of social judgement
- moral judement: decisions regarding right, wrong, fairness and justice
- societal conventional judgement/: decisions regarding customs or regulations intended to ensure coordination and social organization (appropriate clothes, table manenrs, forms of greeting)
- personal judgement: decisions regarding actions that are individual preferences (friends, activities)
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moral vs social conventional judgement
- differentiated by age 3
beleive that parents have authority
- through adolescence
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personal judgement
- by preschool age
- beleive they have authority
- older children and adolescents very firm in their control over personal choices
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conscience
- internal regulartory mechanism that increases an individual's ability to conform with conduct standards accepted in their cultuer
- promotes prosocial Bx- causes guilt when not living up to internalized values
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altrusistic motives
- helping others as a result of empathy/sympathy for others (younger ages)
- the desire to act in ways consistent with one's own conscience and more principles (at older aGES)
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empathy
- emotional reaction to another's emotional state that is highly similar to the person's own state
- requires ability to identify and understand that another is feeling an emotion
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sympathy
- feeling of concern for another's emotional state
- often an outcome of empathy - requires element of conceren
- may begin as early as 6 months
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early actions are
egocentric
- help and comfort others the way we want to be helped and comforted
- as children understand thoughts and feelings of others, develop more appropriate responses to needs of others
- frequency of prosocial Bx increases w/ age
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variability in prososcial Bx
- biological factors - genes, encoding empathy , altruism
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socialization of prosocial Bx
1) modeling and teaching
2) arranging situations to engage prosocially
3) methods of discipline and elicitating proscoiality
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antisocial Bx
- behaviour aimed at harming others
- emerges around 18 months, increases in toddlers
- as language skills improve, physical aggression decreases
* but verbal aggression increases
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antisocial Bx
| temperament and personality
- often difficult from a very early age
| - impulsivity, attention deficits, callousness as a child become aggression and antisocial Bx as adolescent
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social cognition
attribute hostile motives to others
reactive aggression- emotion-driven; hositle
- proactive aggression- unemotional;fulfilling a need/desire
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social referencing
by 14 months: social referencing information affects behaviours even an hour later
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Change over time in 1) causes of fear, 2) basis for self-esteem, 3) anger, 4) negative emotions
Causes of fear in preschool years: imaginary fears, fear of the dark or sharks in the bathtub
Causes of fear in middle childhood: reality based fears, academic achievement, health and safety
Anger in preschool: angry when harmed regardless of intentions
Anger in middle childhood: become less angry towards others as they learn to understand intention, less angry when unintentional
Negative emotions in adolescence: after a decrease seen in middle years we see an increase in adolescence
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Know general relationship between development & depression; how may it differ by gender?
Depression is more common in adolescence
- If seen in young childhood it is usually biological
- Percentage of males ages 12-19 in North America with Depression? 5%
- Percentage of females ages 12-19 In North America with Depression? 12%
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Functionalist approach & implications for the development of emotional reactions
functionalist approach: the basic function of emotion is to achieve a goal in a specific context
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Smiling – when does it emerge and when does it become a social act?
When does smiling emerge?: In REM sleep at about 2-3 weeks/ in newborns
When does smiling become a social act?: At 3 weeks
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Negative emotions & when do unfamiliar people start to elicit fear responses?
What are the first negative emotions?: Responses to hunger and pain
Negative emotions 2 months: differentiate between anger/sadness
Negative emotions 4 months: wariness of unfamiliar objects and events and anger is now different from fear and sadness
Negative emotions 6-7 months: fear of strangers appear
Negative emotions 1 year: child expresses anger often towards other
Negative emotions 2 year: increased ability to control environment which leads to increased anger when frustrated or when something is taken
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Examples of self-conscious emotions & the distinction between guilt vs. shame
Examples of self conscious emotions: embarrassment, pride, shame, guilt.
- These emotions emerge during the 2nd year of life because they start having an increased understanding of self
Guilt: feeling of remorse and a desire to undo what you did, good parenting because there is an emphasis on the action.
-Emerges around 2-3 years
Shame: Self focused remorse, when the parent tells them that they are the problem.
- Emerges around 2-3 years
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Emotion regulation – what 4 factors must be inhibited
What 4 factors must be inhibited during emotional regulation? Internal feeling states, Emotion related cognition, emotion related physiological processes and emotion related behaviour
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Trajectory of development of self-regulation (be familiar with approximate ages
Self regulation at 6 months: begin early sign of self regulation, they will look away from a distressing situation and try to soothe themselves
Self regulation between 1 and 2 years: they will distract themselves from distressing situations
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Secure base & internal working model
Secure base: presence of a consistent caregiver provides a sense of security, caregiver provides source of safety and comfort and pleasure
Internal working model: mental representation of the self, attachment figures and relationships,does the relationship with the caregiver provide security
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Know relationship between child and adult attachment styles (dismissive/preoccupied
Dismissive adults: tendency to deny childhood experiences and less precise recall of memories and often idealize their caregivers
Preoccupied adults: describe childhood experiences emotionally and often express anger or confusion regarding relationships with their caregiver
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Factors of identity formation
People still in identity diffusion: lack in intimate peer relationships, more apathetic, at risk for drug abuse
People who are in identity foreclosure: more likely to obey authority, more likely to rely on other to make important life decisions and have a difficult time drawing meaning from life events
People who are in moratorium are: higher levels of anxiety, relatively unhappy, likely to obey authority and often engage in risk behaviour
Factors that influence identity: parenting, childs behaviour, social contexts, historical context
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Hostile attribution bias
Hostile attribution bias: assumption by some children that actions of others are generally hostile towards them, even if action was ambiguous, leads some to search for hostility and assume peer was trying to harm them, often results in retaliation because seen as appropriate response
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Dweck’s Growth/fixed mindset (incremental/entity)
Incremental view of intelligence: intelligence can be developed with effort, failures result in more hard work, self worth based on own efforts and learning, not evaluation by others, enjoy challenges and persist in attempts to solve hard problems
Entity view of intelligence: intelligence is fixed, failures often lead to doubt about self, self worth is based on the approval of others, seek situation ensuring success and praise, avoid potential criticisms and failures Ethology & evolutionary psychology
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Piaget’s view of how morality changes over time; primary influence on development?
The primary influence on development based on Piaget: primarily advances through interactions with peers
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Skills underlying prosocial behaviour
Skills underlying prosocial behaviour: perspective taking, empathy and moral reasoning
