Exam 3 (Final) Flashcards
Common School Movement
An 1840s initiative led by Horace Mann, committed to values of equality of opportunity, saw public education as the “great equalizer”
A Nation at Risk
1983 government report by the National Commission on Excellence in Education, served as a scathing indictment of education system
Argued that a faulty education system was eroding the economy and the country’s competitiveness, encouraged policymakers to be bold in their reforms
Education Savings Accounts
Parent-managed private savings accounts funded by a deposit from state governments
Used to fund educational services after a parent withdraws their child from public school (exists in 6 states)
Common Core
Unveiled in 2010 (43 states adopted immediately) after new urgency following the failure of NCLB, established fewer, clearer, and higher standards for public schools (themes of rigor and race to the top under Obama Admin.)
Efforts were led by the Council of Chief State School Officers and the National Governors’ Association
Head Start
Created as part of the War on Poverty in 1965, targeted to address inner-city poverty
Won strong bipartisan support at inception
Comprehensive Child Development Act
1971 act called for permanent national provision of preschool, cleared Congress with wide coalition support
Vetoed by Nixon, who blasted its “communal” approach, led to fragmentation of preschool care (venue shopping)
Targeting within universalism
Policies benefit everyone, provide greater benefits to low-income individuals, used to gain broad support
- Critics argue that they are costly methods, not a good use of resources
Ex. Social Security (helps impoverished elderly, as well as all elderly)
Dual Clientele Trap
The idea that welfare serves two constituencies: “deserving” children in need of assistance and their custodial parents (doubted deservingness)
Money Trap
Meaningful reform requires more money than Congress and the public feel is necessary
(most require tax increase or increase in deficit, therefore many programs are underfunded)
Family Assistance Plan
Negative income tax approach proposed by Nixon in 1969, provided $1600 for a family of four with work requirements posed on all families
Design reflected money trap (low benefits, high phase-out rate), endorsed by house and rejected by senate twice (1970, 71)
Also reflected perverse incentives trap
New Federalism
Reagan proposed during SoTU that the federal government take over Medicaid and states control AFDC (welfare entitlement program), very unpopular
PRWORA
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, signed by Clinton
Ended entitlement programs (AFDC, JOBS, replaced them with Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) block grant, increased work requirements, and gave more discretion to state and local governments
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)
Passed in 1965 under LBJ’s War on Poverty, provided money to special needs groups (Low-income/achieving students), not general aid
Steadily expanded to cover additional children, many laws are ESEA reauthorizations (e.g., NCLB (2002) and ESSA (2015))
Charter schools
Starting in MN in 1991, autonomous entities operating within public school system under a contract allowing operation for a specific time with a mandate to provide a specific program/achieve certain results
- Operated by organizers (teachers, parents), overseen by sponsors (school board)
- Public funds granted based on number of students enrolled
- Fewer regulatory restrictions leading to more autonomy in staffing and curriculum
- Relies on market forces (competition) to “stay in business” (motive to hide poor performance, segregate students)
No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
2002 act signed by President Bush, part of standards movement, emphasized testing to promote key theme of equality of opportunity
- Pillars of accountability, program effectiveness, expanded parental options, and increased local control over use of national funds
- States were dissatisfied with implementation, lead to lawsuits by states to regain control of education policy (rise of Common Core)
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)
Signed by Obama in 2015, including prohibitions on the national government (responding to NCLB failures):
* Cannot mandate state spending on costs not covered by legislation
* Cannot endorse any curriculum
* Cannot develop or incentivize a national test
Child and Dependent Care Tax Credit
Signed into law in 1954, subsidized preschool education and promoted family choice
- Example of hidden welfare state (federal gov’t forgoing tax revenue)
American Rescue Plan Act
Signed by Biden in 2021, introduced temporary changes to Child Tax Credit (increased from $2000 per child to $3600 for each under 6, $3000 for children 6-17)
- Fully refundable
- $2500 earned income requirement eliminated, phases out at lower income threshold
- Received bipartisan support (liberals - reduced economic inequality and addressed child poverty, conservatives - freed parents to use money as they see fit)
- Did not last (Manchin and Synema)
Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC)
Created in 1975, lump-sum payment from IRS targeting working poor
- Refundable tax credit with a phase-in range, plateau range, and phase-out range
- $60 billion in benefits distributed to 25 million recipients in 2020, challenging “poor programs” notion (distinguished from welfare as it is not an entitlement program)
Perverse Incentives Trap
The idea that no plausible welfare reform can avoid creating new perverse incentives, or making existing ones worse
- Additional support reduces work incentives
- Support for single-parent families provides incentives to maintain them
- Affects public confidence in and cost of reform proposals
Negative Income Tax
Government guarantees minimum income level, benefits are taxed back at a fixed rate until they are gone (moving up income level)
- Perverse incentives and phase-out range dilemma (issues of work effort and expanse)
- Failed proposal by Nixon in 1969 (FAP)
Programs for Better Jobs and Incomes
Proposed by Carter in 1977 in response to the “welfare mess”, attempted to address the economic challenges at the time
- Included investments in infrastructure, education, and public service jobs
- Died in Congress
“End welfare as we know it”
Quote from Clinton in 1992, focused on work and personal responsibility
- Helped democrats seize moral high ground in election year, guaranteed reform would be on agenda
- Led to Clinton replacing AFDC and JOBS entitlement programs with TANF block grant in 1996
(Dual Clientele Trap) Officials cannot take the politically popular step of ____ without taking the unpopular step of ____
helping impoverished children, helping their parents
Conventional Wisdom vs. New Perspectives
Timing, Structure, and Size/Generosity of American welfare state
Timing
Conventional: US as a “laggard”, comparing Chancellor Bismarck’s policies in late 1800’s to New Deal 50 years after and Great Society “big bangs”
New Perspectives: “Big bangs” were not as pivotal as previously thought, much legislation came out of divided government (ex. EITC, ACA), Civil War pension system predated German welfare state
Structure
Conventional: Upper (widely supported - path dependence) and lower (programs for poor are poor programs) tiers to welfare
New Perspectives: Blurred distinction between tiers, some lower tier programs have grown dramatically (ex. Medicaid), ALC proposes a “third tier” of private benefits
Size/Generosity
Conventional: Policies are less generous than other developed nations
New Perspectives: US does not do less, but does things differently, utilizing hidden welfare state (tax expenditures) and divided welfare state (private sector benefits)
Political Culture
Traces Americans’ social policy beliefs about appropriate scope of government activity (distrust of government, classical liberalism)
Power Resources Theory
Traces social policy to struggle between business and labor, no organized labor party movement in the US, in which the importance of stakeholders is emphasized by veto points
Constitutional Structure
Intentionally devolved power and lack of centralization results in large number of veto players and points
Path Dependence
Refers to the reliance and expectation of social programs in the US, resulting in backlash when attempts are made to repeal
Ex. Social Security as the “third rail”
Policy Feedback Loop
The passage of certain laws signify a change in policy, public expects more laws to expand upon them
Christopher Howard
Posited that the US welfare system does much to provide for the middle and upper classes, but not those in the lower class who need the assistance, which is why it accomplishes so little
Suzanne Mettler
Proposed the idea of the submerged state, which undermines citizenship by fostering passivity and resentment as citizens do not understand certain benefits they receive are part of welfare
- Possibly suited to the political culture of the US
Kent Weaver
Critic of welfare reform up through mid 90s (FAP under Nixon, PBJI under Carter, etc.)
Andrea Louise Campbell
Argues that the demeaning nature of lower tier welfare prevents many from accessing it, advocates for a third welfare tier (private benefits)
Forces of change in the 1960s such as ____ mothers, ____ changes, and new psychological studies pushed for the expansion of government programs
working, demographic
3 R’s of why the US resisted national education policy until the 1960s:
Race, Religion, and Rational government (intrusion on states’ rights)
American Federation of Teachers
Long affiliated with the AFL-CIO, supported standards movement in early 2000s
National Education Association (NEA)
Hybrid between professional association and teachers’ union, endorsed Carter in 1976 to get a DOE cabinet-level department
- Criticized for partisanship and resistance to innovation
Americans’ faith in education resembles “secular religion”, many see it as a path to ____ of ____
equality of opportunity (Horace Mann, CSM in 1840s)
Tyack and Cuban
Schools are a place to tinker and improve society, should not be bogged down with pressure of economic improvement
Weitzel and Lubienski
Challenged the efficacy and morality of charter schools in practice vs. what they claim to be
Marytza Gawlik
Discovered no correlation between charter schools and increased performance, suggested they may magnify racial isolation
Chubb and Moe
Schools are too bureaucratic, try to be everything to everyone, require more discretion and autonomy
Kathryn McDermott
Claimed that only the federal government can guarantee protections for vulnerable groups
Diane Ravitch
Critic of NCLB following its response to A Nation at Risk
