Exam 3 (Ch 7, 9, & 10) Flashcards
concept
general ideas that ties things together in a meaningful way; crucial for understanding the world
two theories on concepts
nativists and empiricists
nativists
innate sensitivity to some concepts, critical for development
empiricists
concepts arise from general learning mechanisms
category
group of things in the world that go together, can be perceptual or conceptual
a category is
a special kind of concept
children for categorical hierarchies beyond infancy
superordinate, basic, and subordinate
superordinate
most general, not specifically tied to one object or characteristic
basic
middle level, 1st to develop due to consistent characteristics
subordinate
most specific level within a hierarchy
causal (intentional) understanding
understanding why things belong to a category helps children learn and make new categories
figuring how things in the world are _____ helps learning
alike
knowing what category things belong to allows kids to _____ new knowledge
infer
at 4 mos.
perceptual categorization
perceptual categorization
objects that look alike go together (color, size, movement)(based on parts rather than whole)(begins in infancy)
at 2 yrs.
categorize global properties, such as shape
all learning is _________
inference
(Beyond perceptual categorization) at age 1
begin to group by object function
at 18 mos.
focus on specific parts of objects, rather than whole object
at 2 yrs.
focus on overall shape and function
Studies with infant and children suggest that there is a __________ to __________ over development
perceptual, conceptual shift
infants primarily form __________ categories
perceptual
as children become more sophisticated
they start forming more conceptual categories
dead reckoning
ability to keep track continuously of one’s location relative to the starting point and be able to go back to it
theory of mind
an organized understanding of how the mind works and how what you think influences behavior
dorsal stream
“where” pathway
ventral
“what” or “how”
spatial info is processed where?
both left and right hemispheres
the spatial coding systems are
allocentric and egocentric
allocentric is
object-object; encodes info about location of one object with respect to another
egocentric is
self-object: encodes info about location of an object with respect to self
____-__________ helps infants move past egocentric spatial coding
self-locomotion
infants use _________ as early as _ mos.
landmarks; 6
by _ they can represent an object’s position in multiple landmarks
5
from early infancy, children can represent _____ in which events occur
order
________ of events is harder
duration
by _ children can learn to accurately estimate period of _-__ seconds if given feedback about the length of the time period
5;3&30
by how many months can infants perceive causal connections among some physical events?
6
understanding the actions they imtate _____ toddlers perform the actions in the _______ order
helps; correct
preschoolers and young elementary school children live in a world
infused by fantasy and reality
most 4-6 yo believe they can influence other people by _______
wishing
however, some aspects of magical thinking can remain into
adolescence
by age _, most children can count to __
3;10
most preschoolers seem to understand the principles underlying counting
one-to-one correspondence, stable order, cardinality, order irrelevance, and abstraction
theories of social development trying to account for these aspects of development
emotion, personality, attachment, self-concept, per relationships, morality, and gender
sigmund freud
psychoanalytic theory, also referred to as psychosexual development
psychoanalytic theory
had a huge impact on thinking about social and personality development
erik erickson
life-span developmental theory
freud believed that
behavior is motivated by biological drives
psychoanalytic theories stress
continuity of individual differences, maintaining that early experiences shape subsequent development
psychosexual development is named so because
it is based on a series of universal developmental states in which psychic energy (or thought) becomes focused in different erogenous zones
psychic energy
biologically based; instinctual drives that energize behavior, thoughts, and feelings
erogenous zones
areas of the body that become erotically sensitive in successive stages of development
freud’s personality structure
id, ego, and superego
id
innate biological drive, earliest and most primitive, and unconscious and operates for sole purpose of deriving pleasure
ego
emerges in first years; rational logical, problem-solving component of personality
superego
(3-6) based on child’s internalization of the parents’ attributes, beliefs, and standards, may even be their own
in superego development, boys must resolve the _______ complex
oedipus
oedipus complex
a psychosocial conflict in which a boy experiences a form of sexual desire for his mother and wants an exclusive relationship with her
the son’s desire for mother and hostility towards father is so
intense that the memory is repressed and results in infantile amnesia
how can the oedipus complex be resolved?
indenting on ather
girls experience the
electra complex
erik erickson accepted the basic constructs of freud’s theory, but
included factors such as culture and politics; also downplayed sex
_ stage theory, characterized by a crisis an individual must solve
8
if the dominant issue is not resolved before the next stage begins
the person will continue to struggle with it
freud’s most significant contribution
emphasis on early life experiences and emotional relationships and recognition of role of subjective experience and unconscious mental activities
erickson’s most significant contribution
emphasis on search for identity in adolescence has a lasting impact
what are some critiques to freud’s and erickson’s theories?
too vague, based entirely on case studies, and many highly questionable elements
learning theorists
emphasize role of external factors and continuity in development
learning theorists also
focus on mechanisms of change and argue that individual differences arise because of different histories of reinforcement and observation
john b watson was the founder of
behaviorism
john b watson believed
development is determined by the environment and that learning through conditioning is the primary mechanism of development
john b watson famous experiment
little albert
critiques of john b watson
simplistic, only emphasis on conditioning; however, his approach to extinguishing fear has been widely used to rid people of phobias
social learning theories core concepts
emphasis on observation and imitation, not reinforcment as primary mechanism of development
what did albert bandura do?
found that preschool children can learn through various observation and vicarious reinforcement
however, over time he placed ____ emphasis on the _________ aspects of observational learning
more; cognitive
social cognitive theory concepts
interest in children’s ability to think and reason about their own, and other people’s thoughts, feelings, motives, and behavior
self-socialization
children’s active shaping of their own development though their activities, preferences, friends, and choices
dodge’s info-processing approach to social development
puts a strong emphasis on cognitions in social development
dodge’s info-processing approach to social development proposes that children go through 6 steps in solving social problems
encode a problematic event interpret the social cues involved in it formulate a goal to resolve the incident generate strategies to achieve goal evaluate potential strategies
found that aggressive children have
hostile attribution bias
hostile attribution bias
an expectation that others are intentionally hostile which becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy
dweck’s social cognitive theory emphasizes
role of self-attributions for achievement (the extent to which they feel that they are responsible for their success/failure)
kids with mastery orientation believe
success=effort
kids with ________ orientation believe that success is attained through ability
helpless
incremental theory
intelligence can increase as a function of experience
entity theory
intelligence is fixed and unchangeable
praising children for _______ ____ supports an incremental model and a mastery-oriented motivational pattern
working hard
praising children for doing well supports an ______ model and a ________ motivational patterns
entity; helpless
critiques of social cognitive theory
stronger emphasis on children as active seekers of opinion about the social realm, important for emphasis on cognitive processes
ecological perspectives
focused on how people relate to each other
ecological
relating or concerned with the relation of living organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings
ecological perspectives take a _____ view of the environment
broad
bioecological models consider _________ level/s of environmental influence
multiple
bioecological models emphasize aspects of behavior that have (or had) some ________ function
adaptive
they also look at behavior that
ensure survival or demise of a race
ethology
study of human behavior and social organization from a biological perspective
evolution
process by which living organism are though to have developed and diversified over time
bioecological
approach based on gene or environmental interactions
conrad lorenz and other ethologists argued that
some innate behaviors were shaped by evolution
ethologists argue that
gender differences are affected by evolved predispositions
females innate preference
nurturing
males innate preference
movement
some support for this argument comes from
nonhuman primates
critiques of ethological
important because they place individual development in a much broader context than other theories
critiques of evolutionary psychology
largely untestable and overlooks human capacity to adapt
critiques of bioecological
criticized for omission of specific biological factors
evolutionary psychology applies
darwinian concepts (natural selection and adaptation) to human behavior
all organisms, including humans are motivated to beave in what way?
to preserve their genes in the gene pool of species
evolutionary psychologists argue that (1)
the large size of our brains necessitates a prolonged period of immaturity
evolutionary psychologists argue that (2)
a consequence in humans’ neural plasticity is learning from experience
evolutionary psychologists argue that (3)
prolonged immaturity requires a great deal of nurturance from parents
evolutionary psychologists see ____ as an evolved platform for learning
play
parental-investment theory
parenting behavior was shaped by evolution and duration of daily care
parents’ genes are perpetuated only if their what?
offspring survive and reproduce (drive to protect kids)
bioecological model (bronfenbrenner)
child’s environment is composed of a series of nested structures, with every level having an impact on development
Freud: oral (first year)
mother is established as strongest love object
Freud: anal (1-3)
defecation
Freud: phallic (3-6)
pleasure in genitalia
Freud: latency (6-12)
channeling of sexual energy into social activities
Freud: genital (12+)
sexual maturation is complete and sex is main goal
Erickson: oral (same years)
developing trust
E: anal
achieve a sense of autonomy, while adjusting to increased social elements
E: phallic
resolved when child develops high latencies and the initiative to meet then without being crushed by anxiety
E: latency
master cognitive saand social skills, learn to work industriously, and play well with others
E: genital
who they really are or live in confusion about what role they should play as adults
reciprocal determinism
child-environment influences operate in both directions
perceived self-efficacy
child’s beliefs about how effectively they can control their own behavior, thoughts, and emotions to achieve a desired goal
bronfenbrenner bioecological model
micro, meso, exo, macro, and chronosystem
microsystem
immediate, bi-directional environment that a person xperiences
mesosystem
encompasses connections among various microsystems
exosystem
environmental settings that the person does not experience directly but indirectly
macrosystem
larger cultural context within which other systems are embedded
chronosystem
historical changes that influence other systems
psychoanalytic theory players
freud and erickson
psychoanalytic theory examples
id, ego, superego; biological drives
lifespan development theory examples
stages of crisis, resolution
learning theory players
watson and skinner
watson examples
behaviorism, Little Albert, conditioned fear
Skinner examples
nature and function of reinforcement, operant conditioning
social learning theory players
Bandura
Bandura examples
bobo doll, observational learning, vicarious reinforcement
Dodge examples
info-processing approach, hostile attribution bias
social cognitive theory players
Dodge and Dweck
dweck examples
mastery of helpless orientations (academic self-perceptions
ecological theory player
Lorenze
ethological examples
imprinting; behavior shaped by evolution, understood in terms of adaptation and survival
evolutionary examples
natural selection drives development; big brains = prolonged parenting
emotional intelligence
a set of abilities that contribute to competent social functing
what are the abilities that contribute to competent social functing?
motivation and persistence in frustration, controlling impulses and delay gratification. identify an understand’s one’s actions and others’ feelings, regulate one’s moods
is emotional intelligence a better predictor of intelligence than iq?
yes
what does walter mischel’s marshmallow task predict using delay of gratification?
social, emotional, and academic competence
emotion
motivational force or action tendency accompanied by changes in physiology
discrete emotions theory
emotions are innate and distinct (discrete) from one another and each one has a specific set of bodily and facial reactions
discrete emotions theory contributors
darwin, izard, and tomkins
functionalist approach
environment helps shape emotions and motivate actions (not discrete) and can vary
