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Vertebrate Endocrinology > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What happens once insulin is released from pancreas?

A
  • it is degraded primarily by the liver during the first cycle through (up to 80% if not utilized)
  • kidney and target tissue decrease levels of circulating insulin
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2
Q

Acetylcholamine (ACH)

A
  • major neurotransmitter between the pre-synaptic neurons and post-synaptic neurons
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3
Q

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine affect on metabolic rate

A
  1. Start break down of glycogen quickly
  2. Make available glucose into 2-pyruvate
  3. Go through the Citric Acid Cycle
  4. Make lots of ATP
  5. Drives physiological processes!
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4
Q

CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone)

A
  • produced by trophoblast (both layers)
  • increases through pregnancy
  • at level of developing fetus maintains placental blood flow
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5
Q

Molecules and Enzyme Pathway to make catecholamines

A
  1. Tyrosine
    - tyrosine hydroxylase
  2. DOPA
    - DOPA decarboxylase
  3. Dopamine
    - Dopamine B-hydroxylase
  4. Epinephrine
  5. Norepinephrine
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6
Q

GLUT Channels

A
  • glucose channels/transporters
  • 14 different types
  • GLUT 1-5 are well characterized only
  • sodium and ATP independent
  • ubiquitous (wide spread throughout mammalian species)
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7
Q

Estrous Synchronization protocols

A
  1. Assess the Animals
    - BCS (5) and days post-partum (45-50d)
  2. Resources
    - labor, facilities, experience, budget
    - time for heat detection and what is realistically manageable
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8
Q

Organs of female repro tract

A
  • ovaries, uterus, fallopian tubes, breasts, cervix, uterus and mammary glands (reservoir for milk during lactation)
  • ovary is the PRIMARY reproductive organ
  • ovaries not connected
  • fimbria will capture release of oocyte
  • implantation will occur in uterine body or uterine horn
  • mullerian ducts derived from mesoderm
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9
Q

Activin in male

A
  • inhibits Inhibin B

- activates FSH and LH release (stimulatory effect)

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10
Q

Glucagon

A
  • glucagon going in opposite direction of insulin (breaks down glycogen to glucose for use)
  • helping to utilize what is being stored and put back into blood stream
  • high blood glucose levels will inhibit production of glucagon
  • fasting state
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11
Q

Nitric Oxide in male

A
  • cyclic GMP inhibits prolonged erections

- penile erection is vasodilation and increased blood flow

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12
Q

What peripheral nervous system will override the other?

A
  • the sympathetic nervous system will override the parasympathetic nervous system
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13
Q

Insulin Receptors

A
  • is a heterotetramer, 2 alpha and 2 beta subunits
  • beta subunits bound to the membrane
  • alpha are extracellular
  • when insulin binds gets cross-phosphorylation and get a downstream intracellular signaling mechanism
  • entire receptor complex can be internalized and insulin can be broken down and receptors can be put back on surface of the cell
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14
Q

Norepinephrine affect on the heart

A
  • Norepinephrine binds to receptors on the blood vessels
  • causes inc rate and force of heart by vasoconstriction of the blood vessels (dec size) to increase blood pressure
  • it is a potent vasoconstrictor
  • BUT it can also cause vasodilation by increasing the blood vessel to get more blood flow to target tissue
  • > different effects if binds to a different receptor
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15
Q

Estrous Synchronization

A
  • a reproductive management tool to stimulate artificial insemination
  • used for a group of females to achieve parturition
  • > dec labor and calving period
  • > reduce time required for estrus detection (heat)
  • use exogenous hormones to manipulate the estrus cycle so all the females come into estrus at once and will ovulate at the same time
  • use artificial insemination to improve genetics, guarantee a certain sex, dec number of bulls used
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16
Q

GLUT 1

A
  • blood, blood brain barrier, heart

- insulin independent

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17
Q

Female Reproductive System Function

A
  • to provide ova for fertilization

- to provide proper conditions for implantation, fetal growth, development, birth and lactation

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18
Q

Functions of melatonin

A
  • circadian rhythm (24 hr cycle of light and dark)
  • seasonal reproduction
  • cardiovascular system
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20
Q

Endocrine regulation of female reproductive tract regulated by

A
  • hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis
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20
Q

Insulin Functions

A
  1. Ensures that excess nutrients are stored
  2. Decreases blood glucose concentration by limiting the rise in blood glucose after eating
  3. Promotes the formation of glycogen (storage form of glucose)
  4. Inhibits glycogenolysis
  5. Inhibits gluconeogenesis
  6. Decrease blood fatty acids by inhibiting mobilization of fatty acids and increasing their storage
  7. Inhibits lipolysis
  8. Decreases blood amino acid concentration by promoting anabolism of proteins
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21
Q

GLUT 2

A
  • liver, pancreas, SI
  • insulin independent
  • Km High
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22
Q

Leptin in male

A
  • produced by adipose tissue and linked to increase levels of LH
  • males with low adipose have delayed onset of puberty
  • people w more adipose can mature earlier (fatties)
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23
Q

Testosterone and Testosterone derived estrogen in male

A
  • LH drives testosterone production
  • required for growth spurts in developing males
  • inc bone mass and inc bone proliferation
  • inc protein synthesis and dec protein breakdown (accum more skeletal muscle mass)
  • inhibits lipid uptake and stim lipolysis (aids burn fat)
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24
Q

Physiological Effects of Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

A
  • they bind to their receptors which are classified as adrenergic receptors
  • adrenergic receptors are a subclass of G-protein associated receptors
  • alpha 1 (increases Calcium)
  • alpha 2 (dec cAMP)
  • Beta 1 (inc cAMP)
  • Beta 2 (inc cAMP)
  • > a1, a2,B1 all binds to epinephrine and norepinephrine
  • > B2 primarily binds to epinephrine
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25
Q

Adrenal Medulla

A
  • extension of sympathetic nervous system (no connection to parasympathetic nervous system)
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26
Q

Insulin Secretion using GLUT-2 Channel

Mechanism using GLUT-2 channels and high levels of glucose in blood stream to stimulate the release of insulin following a meal

A
  1. increase in blood glucose levels stimulates the B cells from the Islets of Langerhans to produce insulin
    2.Glucose is transported inside of the cell through the GLUT-2 channel
  2. In the presence of an enzyme glucose becomes Glucose-6-phosphate
  3. Gluc-6-phos undergoes glycolysis and produces two
    3-C glucose
  4. Moves into mitochondria and produces ATP
  5. ATP has a negative affect on ATP potassium (K+) dependent channels and close them
  6. Stimulates the insertion of calcium channels
    - less K+ being moved in and out of cell
  7. calcium in the blood stream flows into the B-cell
  8. As calcium moves into the cell, the ER releases the intracellular calcium it was storing
  9. Calcium influx causes secretory granules containing biologically active insulin + c-peptide fragments to be translocated to the membrane and released into the blood stream
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27
Q

Oral Contraceptive Types

A
  1. Combination
    - uses combination of Estrogen and Prog for 21 d, off for 7d and back on again
  2. Progestin only
    - progestin only synth form of progesterone
  3. Extended Release Contraceptive
    - take less often bc lasts longer
  4. Patches/Injections
    - to prevent cycle all together, until removed
  5. IUD
    - modifies endometrial lining and prevents implantation
  6. Barrier Method
    - kills sperm
  7. Morning after
    - massive anti-progesterone pills to stop implantation
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28
Q

3 Regions of the Pancreas

A
  1. Head
  2. Body
  3. Tail
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29
Q

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine affect on the lungs

A
  • bronchioles (where O2/CO2 exchange occurs) have the ability to increase the pulmonary ventilation by dilating the bronchioles
  • allows more room for air flow
  • The ribcage (skeletal muscle) will be able to open up even more and be able to expand the air you can take in and compress out
  • > opens up airways in flight/fight response (stress)
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30
Q

Tyrosine

A
  • a precursor for dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine

- produced as a result of ACH being released as a precursor from the sympathetic neurons

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31
Q

Norepinephrine Levels Purpose (normal and abnormal)

A
  1. Normal
    - execution, memory recall, perseverance
  2. Abnormal
    - hesitation, obsession, constant doubt
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32
Q

Female cycle (ovary)

A
  • pituitary hormone targets the ovary
  • cycle happens at ovary and causes cycle at uterus
    1. Follicular phase
  • 0 to 14 days
  • estrogen increases, progesterone inc
  • follicle size increases
    2. Ovulation
  • day 14
  • follicle ovulates/ruptures and becomes corpus luteum and produce progesterone
  • if oocyte released at ovulation has been fertilized(prego) CL will maintain its size and progesterone will stay high to maintain pregnancy, until implantation of fetus can prod P4 itself and then CL will regress
    3. Luteal Phase
  • 14-28 days
  • progesterone starts very high and as regresses dec
  • follicle regresses
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34
Q

Glucose

A
  • is hydrophilic
  • need channels to move glucose molecules
  • glucose transporters present in diff types of tissues
  • GLUT and SGLT
  • only GLUT-4 is insulin dependent
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35
Q

Normal Dopamine Level Effects

A
  • will spike in levels upon orgasm
  • increase immune system
  • increases concentration
  • boosts mood
  • self rewarding
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36
Q

Male and Female ducts are derived from?

A
  • the embryonic mesoderm
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36
Q

Melatonin affect on Long day vs short day breeders

A
  1. Long day breeders (spring, more light)
    - mares
    - dec melatonin, inc GnRH, inc FSH and LH
  2. Short Day breeders (fall, more darker hours)
    - sheep, goat
    - inc melatonin, dec GnRH, dec FSH and LH
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37
Q

Sertoli cells in male

A
  • develop at week 6
  • produce sperm, activin, inhibin, and ABP (androgen binding protein)
  • inside the seminiferous tubules
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38
Q

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine Directly Affects

A
  1. Heart
  2. Blood vessels/flow
  3. Lungs/Rib cage
  4. Lipids in blood stream
  5. Metabolic Rate
  6. Pupils
  7. Nonessential processes
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39
Q

Islets of Langerhans

A
  • endocrine function of pancreas
  • spread throughout entire region, but only makes up less than 3% of total mass
  • receive massive amounts of blood flow, 15-20% of blood flow going to pancreas goes here
  • contains alpha and beta cells
  • contains fenestrated capillaries
  • is innervated by sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons
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40
Q

FSH and LH

A
  • released from blood stream and targets the ovary
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41
Q

Leydig cells in male

A
  • develop at week 9

- produce testosterone, androstenedione and DHEA(prod test and estr)

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42
Q

What happens when sperm and egg fuse?

A
  • haploid cells become diploid and keep going through cell division
  • migrating during cell division
  • form morula compacts to blastocyst
  • blastocyst implants
  • blastocyst breaks down the uterine wall and implant, when it does 3 germ cell layers develop and CNS will form
  • from germ cell layers and CNS everything else develops
  • complete within 90 days CL regress, fetus self sustains, placenta forms
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43
Q

2 Functions when dealing w Pancreas and Endocrine Function

A
  1. Well Fed
  2. Fasting
    - > food for fuel or you don’t
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44
Q

What is the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consist of:

A
  1. Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)
    - rest and digest
    - feed and breed
  2. Sympathetic Nervous System
    - flight or fight
    - quicker response
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45
Q

GLUT-2

A
  • located on liver, pancreas and basal side of small intestine
  • insulin independent, responds to levels of glucose
  • high Km and a low affinity
  • bidirectional
  • present when have high levels of blood glucose
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46
Q

How do sperm penetrate oocyte

A
  • sperm undergo capacitation, acrosomal reaction

- have to get through zona pellucida (leaves tail in layer

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47
Q

Abnormal Epinephrine and Norepinephrine Levels Effects

A
  1. Excess
    - excess sweating, inc blood pressure, headache, anxiety, tremors
  2. Deficient
    - inability to deal with stress
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48
Q

Epinephrine Specific Function

A
  • satisfaction (ok im cool w that)
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49
Q

Diabetes insipidus

A
  • have normal blood glucose, nothing to do with glucagon or insulin, pancreas not involved
  • has to do with ADH (antidiuretic hormone)/AVP (argenine vasopressin) at level of nephron
  • indiv had similar symptoms to diabetes mellitus
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50
Q

FSH and LH in females

A
  • targets developing oocyte
  • FSH binds granulosa cells heavily and theca cells a little
  • LH binds heavily to thecal cells, but lightly to granulosa cells
  • increases level of estrogen
  • during ovarian phase FSH targets developing oocyte and grow (up regulation of LH receptors)
  • but then LH spikes causes ovulation (oocyte released)
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51
Q

Insulin in pancreas

A
  • insulin helps store glycogen!
  • helps in the storage of fatty acids and convert to triglycerides for long term storage of glycogen
  • will stimulate lipogenesis and inhibits lipolysis
  • high blood glucose levels will stimulate production of insulin
  • well fed state
  • insulin will trump glucagon!
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52
Q

GLUT-4

A
  • not bidirectional
  • located on skeletal muscle, adipose and the heart
  • insulin dependent
  • exercise will increases the presence of GLUT-4
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53
Q

Mechanism to store glucose in glycogen structure

A
  • in presence of hexokinase which is in most cells, begin process of storing glucose as glycogen (rate limiting step)
    1. Glucose
  • hexokinase
    2. Glucose-6-Phosphate
  • mutase
    3. Glucose-1-Phosphate
    4. Uridine diphosphate glucose
  • glycogen synthase
    5. Glycogen
  • glycogenphosphorylase (reverse process down)
    6. Glucose-1-Phosphate
  • mutase
    7. Glucose-6-Phosphate
  • glucose-6-phosphatase
    8. Glucose
  • > in a well fed state can move glucose out of blood stream into cell
  • > reverse process from glycogen back to an energy source need glucose-6-phosphatase, but only present in some tissue
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54
Q

ABP (androgen binding protein)

A
  • is primarily in the testes
  • synthesis in sertoli cells
  • bind to testosterone and preserve half life
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55
Q

Dopamine Specific Function

A
  • mood

- self rewarding (that was great lets do it again!)

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56
Q

Pathway to Production of the Catecholamines

A
  1. CNS, specifically the pre-ganglionic neurons, are stimulated by sympathetic nervous system neurons to release acetylcholine (ACH) into adrenal medulla
  2. Presence of ACH in the adrenal medulla drives the production of tyrosine
  3. Tyrosine will convert to DOPA then the catecholamines in the presence of enzymes
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57
Q

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine affect on Nonessential Processes

A
  • when epinephrine/neuroepinephrine pathway is fully activated through sympathetic nervous system it will inhibit all nonessential processes
  • this includes breeding, digesting, relaxing, etc
  • > dec of blood flow to target organs, but enough blood flow to survive
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58
Q

Inside Pancreas Functions

A
  1. Digestive Function
  2. Endocrine function
    - glucose metabolism
    - Islets of Langerhons
59
Q

Insulin in pancreas

A
  • insulin helps store glycogen!
  • helps in the storage of fatty acids and convert to triglycerides for long term storage of glycogen
  • will stimulate lipogenesis and inhibits lipolysis
  • high blood glucose levels will stimulate production of insulin
  • well fed state
  • insulin will trump glucagon!
60
Q

Stimulus/Inhibitors for insulin release

A
  • glucose is the PRIMARY STIMULUS to produce insulin
  • calcium is a stimulus as well
  • Catecholamines inhibit insulin release
61
Q

Norepinephrine Specific Function

A
  • concentration
62
Q

Central Diabetes Insipidus

A
  • damage to the hypothalamus or pituitary
63
Q

1/2 life of insulin and c-peptide

A
  1. Insulin
    - 1/2 life is 3-8 minutes
  2. C-peptide
    - 1/2 life is 35 minutes
64
Q

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

A
  • damage to the beta cells
  • can’t produce enough insulin
  • treat with exogenous insulin
  • called insulin dependent diabetes, or juvenile onset diabetes
65
Q

Livers role in glucagon and insulin

A
  • role is to breakdown and produce different molecules
  • aids in breakdown of glycogen to release glucose
  • epinephrine, cortisol, GH all help w homeostasis
66
Q

Mammary Gland Development

A
  • high progesterone during pregnancy prevents milk production
  • primary regulator of milk protein synthesis is prolactin
  • oxytocin for parturition
67
Q

Glucose-6-Phosphatase

A
  • only present in liver, kidney and some intestinal cells
  • need to reverse back to glucose
  • limiting enzyme
68
Q

Anti-mullerian Hormone (AMH) / MIF (Mullerian inhibiting factor) / MIS (mullerian inhibiting substance)

A
  • sertoli cells begins to produce AMH/MIF/MIS and mullerian ducts will begin to regress in the male
  • if lack AMH, species will develop both female and male ducts
  • > will have a penis, uterus and ovaries (INTERSEX)
69
Q

Wolffian Ducts

A
  • male reproductive system
  • become the epididymis, vas/ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct and seminal vesicles
  • testosterone drives the development of this and secondary sex characteristics
70
Q

What happens to insulin levels after a meal is consumed?

A
  • insulin levels increase

- it is pulsatile and it is rhythmic

71
Q

Fenestrated Capillaries

A
  • has holes through the capillary bed that is innervated with the pancreas
  • at the level of the tissue has holes all in capillaries to allow massive exchange of bringing nutrients (insulin and glucagon) to the pancreas and out
72
Q

Abdominal migration of reproductive organs in female

A
  • some migration, but not a lot
73
Q

7 day CO-Synchronization + CIDR

A
  • protocol for mature cows and heifers
  • more time specific
  • on day 0 give GnRH injection
  • CIDR prevents ovulation from day 0 to 7
  • on day 7 Prostaglandin injection
  • days 7 to 10 artificially inseminate and give a GnRH injection every 60-66 hours
74
Q

7 day CIDR

A
  • Prostaglandin (protocol for mature cows and heifers)
  • CIDR prevents ovulation from day 0 to 7
  • at day 7 give Prostaglandin
  • from day 7 to 14 heat check and artificially inseminate
75
Q

3 Products used for estrous synchronization

A
  1. GnRH
    - cystorelin
  2. Prostaglandins
    - PGF2a, or analogue
    - lutalyse and estrumate
  3. Progestins
    - CIDR
76
Q

Catecholamines

A
  • epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine are this
  • contain catechol group
  • released due to stress (many diff factors-> work, school, deadlines, exercise)
  • increases lipids in blood, increases blood pressure, increases blood sugar, increases cardiac output (increase speed and force of contractility)
  • role in alertness, memory and reward
77
Q

Progression of male development week 6 and 9

A
  • in the male at week 6 have sertoli cells and seminiferous cords (become seminiferous tubules)
  • at week 9 develop into leydig cells begin to produce DHEA (can begin to produce testosterone and estradiol)
78
Q

Stress includes:

A
  • trauma, physiological stress, exercise, hypoglycemia and starvation
79
Q

Diabetes Mellitus

A
  • symptoms: inc in blood sugar, extreme thirst, frequent urination, fruity/sweet breath, inc levels of sugar in urine
  • lead to lethargy and blurred vision
    1. Type 1
    2. Type 2
80
Q

3 Germ Cell Layers

A
  1. Endoderm
  2. Mesoderm * (ducts derive from here)
  3. Ectoderm
    - > epithelial cells, sheaths
    - > under hormone cues will close this is called neural tube closure, develops CNS first
81
Q

Glucagon Receptors

A
  • G alpha i
  • G alpha s
  • G alpha q
  • > G protein receptor
  • > binds to receptors and glucose utilizes channels to move in and out
82
Q

DHT in males

A
  • present for embryonic development of prostate gland and descent of the testes
  • trans-abdominal migration (migrate down)
  • if don’t have enough DHT can develop cryptorchid (one or both testicles don’t drop and stay in body cavity)
  • levels are reduced by Rogaine
83
Q

Nuclei

A
  • collection of cell bodies outside of the CNS
84
Q

Estradiol (estrogen)

A
  • causes closure of developing ducts such as Wolffian ducts or Mullerian
85
Q

Seminiferous Tubules in the male

A
  • sperm is produced

- contains sertoli cells/nurse cells/sustentacular cells

86
Q

Progesterone in female

A
  • primary hormone after luteinization or ovulation
  • hCG causes CL to continue to produce progesterone
  • after 50-60 d of pregnancy, syncytiotrophoblast becomes the principle source of progesterone
87
Q

SGLT 2

A
  • PCT
  • insulin independent
  • Km is ATP/Na+ dependent
88
Q

Ganglia

A
  • collection of cell bodies inside of the CNS
89
Q

hPL (human placental lactogen)

A
  • produced by syncytiotrophoblast and produced until 45 days into human pregnancy
  • aids in maternal and fetal metabolism
  • aids in development of fetus in growth phase
  • > energy source
90
Q

Preproinsulin

A
  • insulin is produced by the beta cells of the Islets of Langerhans and is first produced as preproinsulin
  • has an signal peptide, N-terminal, beta-chain, (disulfide bonds connecting beta and alpha chains), c-peptide, alpha-chain, C-terminal
  • undergo post-translational modifications to become insulin
91
Q

SHBG (sex hormone binding Globulin)

A
  • the general circulation
  • synthesis in brain, liver, placenta
  • bind to testosterone and preserve half life
92
Q

Estrogen in female

A
  • production of estrogen from developing follicle
  • thecal cells and granulosa cells communicate
  • androgens are produced from the adrenal gland
  • proliferal conversion (converts enzymes)
93
Q

Melatonin

A
  • produced in pineal gland (endocrine gland in brain)
  • consist of pinealocytes
    Mechanisms:
  • if dark will inc melatonin production
  • if light will dec melatonin production
    -> precursor of tryptophan to serotonin to melatonin
94
Q

Central Nervous System Involved with:

A
  • Brain and Stem (Spinal Chord)
  • Nuclei
  • Ganglia
  • Acetylcholine (ACH)
  • > major neurotransmittor
95
Q

Inhibin in male

A
  • produced by sertoli cells
  • heterodimer glycoprotein
  • 2 forms:
    1. alpha Ba (inhibin A)
    2. alpha Bb (inhibin B)
  • > responsible for the negative feedback to the hypothalamus to inhibit hormone production
  • > also correlated with total sperm count and testicular vile
96
Q

Ovary

A
  • primary reproductive organ
  • FSH and LH target
  • produces estrogen and progesterone then targets the uterine body or uterine horns
97
Q

Alpha and Beta cells in Islets of Langerhans

A
  1. Alpha cells
    - produce glucagon
  2. Beta cells
    - produce insulin
98
Q

Testosterone in male

A
  • bound to 2 proteins SHBG (sex hormone binding globulin) and ABP (androgen binding protein)
  • can be converted by aromatase to 17-B-estradiol (estrogen)
  • > aids in negative feedback in males to hypoth/pit and during development high levels of estrogen (fetal implantation) lead to inc masculinization(gender pref)
  • can be converted by 5alpha-reductase to DHT (type 1 and 2)
  • > two diff isoenzymes
  • > DHT type 2 is extremely high during development and critical for sexual differentiation
  • > DHT type 1 more important in adult males, elevated levels have been linked to prostate cancer
99
Q

Gestational Diabetes Insipidus

A
  • placenta is producing an enzyme/molecule that is breaking down ADH
  • excreting too much water
  • monitor blood levels?
100
Q

Testosterone in male

A
  • bound to 2 proteins SHBG (sex hormone binding globulin) and ABP (androgen binding protein)
  • can be converted by aromatase to 17-B-estradiol (estrogen)
  • > aids in negative feedback in males to hypoth/pit and during development high levels of estrogen (fetal implantation) lead to inc masculinization(gender pref)
  • can be converted by 5alpha-reductase to DHT (type 1 and 2)
  • > two diff isoenzymes
  • > DHT type 2 is extremely high during development and critical for sexual differentiation
  • > DHT type 1 more important in adult males, elevated levels have been linked to prostate cancer
101
Q

SGLT 1

A
  • intestinal epithelium, LOH
  • insulin independent
  • Km is ATP/Na+ dependent
102
Q

Secondary Sex Characteristics in male

A
  • FSH drives it
    1. Spermatogenesis
  • body goes through meiosis
    2. Germ Cell Differentiation
    3. Production of Spermatozoa
103
Q

GLUT 3

A
  • brain, neurons, sperm
  • insulin independent
  • Km low
104
Q

Abnormal Dopamine Levels Effects

A
  1. Excess Dopamine Levels
    - inc addictive behaviors bc self rewarding
    - associated with schizophrenia
    - associated with learning behaviors
  2. Deficient Dopamine Levels
    - restless leg syndrome
105
Q

Diseases of Testosterone in male

A
  1. excess androgens, estradiol, testosterone early in life due to increase GnRH can lead to early onset puberty caused by mutation in level of the brain
  2. decreased testosterone due to dec GnRH
    - > causes dec growth during childhood, underdeveloped skeletal muscle, weakened bones
    - > in adult hood can lead to muscle weakness and regression in sexual function
106
Q

GLUT-4

A
  • not bidirectional
  • located on skeletal muscle, adipose and the heart
  • insulin dependent
  • exercise will increases the presence of GLUT-4
107
Q

Fasting State (a)

A
  • high levels of glucagon
  • gluconeogenesis (prod of glucose from a non-glucose source)
  • glycogenolysis (lysis of glycogen)
  • lipolysis (breakdown of lipids)
  • Beta oxidation (breakdown of lipids)
  • proteolysis (breakdown of proteins)
  • ketogenesis (production of ketone bodies)
108
Q

What decreases insulin?

A
  • cortisol, epinephrine, adrenal cortex, adrenal medulla, growth hormone
  • all have collective effects where decreases insulin secretion
  • would increase lipolysis, want to do this because need more energy
109
Q

Imbalance of Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

A
  • tumors at the level of the adrenal gland can cause improper secretion of these molecules (#1 cause)
  • can also be a mutation in the biochemical process
110
Q

What is the purpose of having varying levels of insulin and glucagon?

A
  • to maintain homeostasis
111
Q

GLUT 4

A
  • skeletal muscle, adipose, heart
  • insulin dependent
  • Km moderate
112
Q

3 Layers of Uterine Body

A
  1. Serus
  2. Muscular
    - birth and menstrual cramping
  3. Mucus
    - endometrium
    - 2 layers: stratum basale and stratum functionale
    - this layer is shed during menstrual cycle
113
Q

Fertilization of oocyte

A
  • developing oocyte on ovary
  • fimbria surround ovary
  • when oocyte is released moves into upper region of fallopian tube and the sperm that were deposited from the male swim upstream to meet oocyte
114
Q

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

A
  • body does not respond to insulin (mutated receptor?)
  • have to monitor blood sugar
  • often caused by rapid weight gain and becoming morbidly obese
  • called insulin independent diabetes, or adult onset diabetes
  • is reversible
115
Q

Syncytiotrophoblast

A
  • is shared with maternal side
116
Q

GnRH in male

A
  • is the driving force of puberty
  • during sleep get pulsatile GnRH
  • LH levels rise, target leydig cells and produce testosterone
117
Q

At level of the uterus

A
  • due to what is occurring at ovary
    1. Menstrual
  • 0 to 5 days
  • shed endometrium
    2. Proliferation
  • 5 to 14 days
  • massive proliferation(enlargement) of uterine horns to prepare for implantation
  • estrogen peaks at day 5 and decreases
  • high levels of progesterone
    3. Secretory
  • 14 to 25 days
  • lining is sloughed
  • implants in this phase
  • progesterone increases/maintains high levels
  • if pregnant uterine horn state would maintain itself
118
Q

Aging in Males affect on hormones

A
  • during sexual maturation testosterone is at the optimal level
  • at age 40 in humans testosterone declines and at 50 decrease of sperm volume
  • leads to decrease in LH production, increase fatigue, increase depression, decrease sexual desire
119
Q

FSH in male

A
  • binds to G alpha s receptor
  • aids in the development of immature testes and seminiferous tubule growth
  • levels of FSH determine testicular size
  • after development has occurred aids in production of ABP(androgen binding protein) and Spermatozoa
120
Q

Menopause

A
  • permanent end of menstruation
  • first dec signal comes from the pituitary (dec production of hormones)
  • dec stimulation of ovaries, dec Estrogen and Prog
  • Estrogen needed for bone turnover (denser longer) during menstruation
121
Q

Pancreas

A
  • located in the duodenum of the small intestine (very early on)
  • vital for glucose metabolism and absorption of nutrients (insulin and glucagon)
  • METABOLISM AND DIGESTION*
  • key player in glucose homeostasis
122
Q

Well Fed State (B)

A
  • insulin predominates (high insulin, store glucose and keep out of blood stream)
  • abundance of fuel energy
  • glycolysis (glucose utilization/lysis)
  • glycogenesis (storing glucose)
  • lipogenesis (storing fat)
  • protein synthesis
  • glucose uptake into tissue
123
Q

Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus

A
  • mutation at the nephron

- does not respond to ADH/AVG

124
Q

Blastocyst

A
  • breaks down uterine wall and implants
  • inner cell mass
  • Trophoblast: cytotrophoblast(inner cells) and syncytiotrophoblast (outer cells)
  • at simplest form prior to implantation
  • syncytiotrophoblast is shared with maternal side and remains maternal once implants
  • inner cell mass and cytotrophoblast are fetal remains placental
  • > differentiation of cells
125
Q

Contraception

A
  1. oral contraception is to stop ovulation by manipulating levels of estrog and prog
    - > follicle enlarges but never lyses/ovulates
  2. Rhythm method of birth control least effective
    - time when ovulation occurs
  3. Birth Control
    - approved by FDA in 1961, then 1965 SC said only married women could use, in 1972 SC overruled
126
Q

Pre-ganglionic Neurons

A
  • arise in CNS and go to post-ganglionic neurons with an EXCEPTION
  • Pre-ganglionic neurons go to Adrenal Medulla release acetylcholine (ACH) and trigger downstream effects
127
Q

Inhibins and Activins in females

A
  • have feedback mech to level of hypoth and pit

- to aid in stim or shut down of GnRH, FSH, LH

128
Q

Dipsogenic Diabetes Insipidus

A
  • mutation with the individuals thirst mechanism

- massive water intake, massive urine

129
Q

hCG (human cornotic gonadotropin)

A
  • produces by syncytiotrophoblast and releases hCG into maternal circulation
  • “hormone of pregnancy”
  • basis of most pregnancy tests (what is detected)
  • relays back to maternal side to make sure mother does not destroy during implantation bc its invasive
  • as female sleeps hCG increases
  • at home test 6-8 days after implantation begins is when its detectable
  • the peak of hCG can last from 60-90 d
  • keeps CL functioning and Prog levels high
130
Q

Epinephrine to affect on the heart

A
  • Epinephrine binds to Beta blocker receptors on the heart

- increase speed/rate and force of contractions (strength of pump)

131
Q

FSH and LH in male

A
  • sertoli and leydig cells are regulated by these hormones
  • FSH and LH binds to G alpha s receptor
  • LH binds to leydig cell to produce testosterone
132
Q

3 Primary Products from the Adrenal Medulla following stimulation of Acetylcholamine (ACH) from the sympathetic nervous system neurons

A
  1. Epinephrine
  2. Norepinephrine
    - > together called adrenaline
  3. Dopamine
    - > all 3 are catecholamines and cardiac stimulators!
133
Q

Epinephrine Levels Purpose (normal and abnormal)

A
  1. Normal
    - learning memory, pleasure, relaxation
  2. Abnormal
    - confusion, pain, anxiety, restlessness
134
Q

SGLT Channels

A
  • sodium dependent glucose transporters
  • sodium dependent
  • require ATP
  • only on certain tissue types (not ubiquitous)
135
Q

GLUT 5

A
  • intestinal epithelium

- insulin independent

136
Q

Canine Diabetes

A
  • Extreme Beta-Cell Deficiency in Pancreas, similar to Diabetes Mellitus type 1
  • in elderly dogs
  • Pancreatic islet transplantation is a cell based therapy that provides a potential cure for diabetes in humans trying to make available to dogs
  • compared cardiac function in dogs with and without diabetes
  • > Dogs with diabetes of more than one year had a thickened left ventricle and diastolic dysfunction
  • Starch may interfere with glycemic control in dogs
  • > Peas and barley were a better source of starch
137
Q

Pancreatic Beta cells

A
  • are the fuel sensors responding to levels of energy needs
138
Q

Synthesis of Insulin

A
  1. Pre-proinsulin has 4 polypeptides:
    - signal peptide, alpha peptide, beta peptide, c-peptide
  2. through post translational modification, the signal peptide is cleaved off and held in ER
    - becomes proinsulin
  3. 2 Disulfide bonds connect alpha and beta peptide chains and alpha has one of their own
  4. The C-peptide is cleaved off and the molecule becomes biologically active insulin
  5. Insulin (the connected alpha and beta cell) + the c-peptide is packaged into secretory granules together
    - when insulin is released all the molecules are released together
139
Q

Y chromosome

A
  • has TDF (testes determining factor)/SRY(sex determining region Y)
  • SRY is responsible for initiation of male differentiation
  • if SRY region is missing Mullerian/female ducts will develop
    SWYER SYNDROME
  • if SRY is mutated development of Mullerian ducts will occur and will appear to be female, but wont have ovaries
140
Q

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine affect on the pupils

A
  • when epinephrine/neuroepinephrine are activated via the sympathetic nervous system the pupils will DILATE
  • IF CONSTRICTED: bored, distracted, disgusted, mind inactive
  • IF DILATED: interested, thinking hard, confidence in action and belief, attracted to you or the situation, excited, stimulated
141
Q

How to measure biologically active insulin?

A
  • measure the circulating levels of the c-peptide
142
Q

Primary Stimulus for Insulin release

A
  • is glucose that is present in the plasma (blood stream)

- glucose molecules w 6-C

143
Q

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine affect on lipids

A
  • increases the amount of lipids in the bloodstream
  • can quickly convert stored adipose (fat) with the sympathetic nervous system and move these lipids into the blood stream

Vertebrate Endocrinology (4 decks)

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