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Botany 460 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

How can communities be compared, composition-wise?

A

You can look at:

Species number (Richness)

Species Abundance (pi)

Species Evenness

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2
Q

Species-Area relationship

(Explanation and equations)

A

Larger areas tend to contain more species, while smaller areas tend to contain smaller species.

Best represented graphically on a log(richness) vs log(area) where the slope is linear and positive.

S=cAz

log S = log c + z log A

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3
Q

How do the species-area relationships differ for mainland vs islands?

A

Islands start lower but have a steeper slope.

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4
Q

Species Richness

A

The total number of species in a given sample/area

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5
Q

Species Abundance

A

The precent cover or number of individuals of each species in the sample

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6
Q

Relative Abundance

A

pi

The abundance of a given species divided by the total abundance of all species in the community

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7
Q

Species Evenness

A

How equally represented species abundances are in a sampe.

Low evenness is when one spp is very abundant but others are not.

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8
Q

Simpson’s Reciprocal Diversity Index

A

1/D=1/Σ(pi2)

More affected by spp ABUNDANCE/EVENNESS than spp richness.

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9
Q

Simpson’s Index

A

D

=Σ(pi2)

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10
Q

Primary Succession

A

Occurs on newly-exposed geologic substrates

Ex: Volcanos create substrate, Receding glaciers reveal substrate

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11
Q

Secondary Succession

A

Occurs after disturbances that kill community members but leave the soil intact.

Ex: Hurricanes, fires, human impacts

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12
Q

What three mechanisms affect the path of succession?

A

TOLERANCE

FACILITATION

INHIBITION

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13
Q

Tolerance

A

Ability to withstand harsh conditions

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14
Q

Facilitation

A

When a species or group of species makes an environment easier for other species to live in.

Ex: Legumes add Nitrogen to soil and facilitate the survival of other species

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15
Q

Inhibition

A

When one or a group of species change the envrionment to make it harder for other species to survive. AKA opposite of facilitation

Ex: Allelopathy

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16
Q

Priority Effects

A

Whichever species gets to a disturbed area first will dictate who can colonize later in the succession

Ex: Light seeds have higher mortality in shade than heavy seeds

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17
Q

What are some life history traits of early-successional species?

A

Small seeds

Tolerant of stress and disturbance

High fecundity

Quick growth

Poor competitors

Good dispersers

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18
Q

What are some life history traits of late-successional species?

A

Large seeds

Lower fecundity

Slow-growing

Good competitors

Poor dispersers

Intolerant of harsh conditions

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19
Q

What is old-field succession and how has it affected the successional pathway of SE Upland forests?

A

Old-field succession is the succession on abandoned farm fields.

Annual Plants -> Perennial Plants/Grasses -> Shrubs -> Softwood trees/Pines -> Hardwood Trees

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20
Q

Sere

A

An event that removes all or part of a community

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21
Q

Climax Community

A

The end-point or steady-state reached at the end of a successional pathway

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22
Q

Catherine Keever

A

Studied Old-Field Succession in SE Upland Forests

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23
Q

What can we measure to assess diversity?

A

Species

Genes

Ecosystems

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24
Q

How many species are estimated to exist on earth?

A

10-30 million

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25
Q

What kinds of factors determine community assembly?

A

LOCAL: abiotic and biotic interactions

REGIONAL: Climate, regional spp pool, and landscape processes

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26
Q

Local-Regional Richness Relationship

A

Tells you whether interspecies interactions (Lowest line) or dispersal (middle line) is more important in determining local diversity.

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27
Q

Assembly Rules

A

The idea that ECOLOGICAL FILTERS (abiotic and biotic) dictate what species exist in a community.

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28
Q

What are three theories that attempt to explain biodiversity?

A

Equilibrium Theory of ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY

INTERMEDIATE DISTURBANCE Hypothesis

Niche vs. NEUTRAL THEORY

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29
Q

Equilibrium Theory of Island Biogeography

A

Equilibrium number of species is higher on islands that are larger and closer to the mainland than for islands that are smaller and farther away.

Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson

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30
Q

Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis

Describe it and say when it does not hold

A

Species richness/diversity is highest when disturbance is intermediate in amount.

*Doesn’t necessarily hold when there are multiple forms of disturbance acting on an ecosystem

Joseph Connell

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31
Q

Neutral Theory

A

Biodiversity is driven by random chance, and is not influenced by the idea of niches.

Stephen Hubbell

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32
Q

Alpha vs Beta vs Gamma Diversity

A

Alpha: Local Diversity (e.g. in Marsh)

Gamma: Large-scale diversity (Marsh+Dune+Thicket)

Beta: Spp turnover (change betw 2 localities)

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33
Q

Trophic Guilds

A

Divisions of species based on their method or location of foraging within a trophic level (Seed- vs insect-eating birds/mice)

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34
Q

What are three types of food webs and how do they differ?

A

Connectedness Web - All feeding relationships

Energy Flow web - Must have a transfer of energy

Functional Web - Must also affect “r” of other species

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35
Q

How have changes to top trophic levels affect communities and ecosystem processes?

A

It alters the abundances of species further down the cascade in alternating +/- ways.

These are often caused by human activities.

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36
Q

Food Chain vs Food Web

A

Food CHAIN: Linear relationship of what eats what

Food WEB: Shows interconnectedness and multiple prey/predator relationships.

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37
Q

Keystone Species

A

Species that have low biomass in the ecosystem but have large effects on community structure.

Ex: Beavers, Starfish

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38
Q

Dominant Species

A

A species that has a high biomass in the ecosystem AND a high influence on community structure by virtue of their biomass

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39
Q

How can you distinguish between a Bottom-Up food chain versus a Top-Down food chain?

A

Bottom-Up: Increase in producers -> Increase in ALL other levels

Top-Down: Increase in top level -> decrease in next -> alternating

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40
Q

Trophic Cascade

A

An effect of changing one trophic level which ends up affecting all of the other ones.

Can be done by adding a level to the top -> alternates +/- effects going down

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41
Q

What are some examples of human activity-induced effects on trophic structure?

A

Introducing wolves to grasslands increases primary production and decreases diversity, changing the structure of the ecosystem because they eat herbivores.

Basically, we add or remove top predators, which change the structure of the community by trophic cascades. If we remove secondary predators, it ends up decreasing PP/herbs.

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42
Q

Community Stability

A

The ability of a community to defy or rebound from change

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43
Q

Robert T. Paine

A

Defined KEYSTONE SPECIES using starfish and mussels

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44
Q

Steve Carpenter

A

(UW) TROPHIC CASCADES in aquatic systems

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45
Q

What are Earth’s natural climate cycles like?

A

~100,000 years long

~90K gradual cooling

~10K rapid warming

46
Q

Sara Hotchkiss

A

Used pollen and diatoms to reconstruct climate 18,000 years ago -> tells us about disturbance and changes in plant communities

47
Q

What influences global biodiversity over long periods of time?

A

Continental Drift

Catastrophes/extinctions

Climate Change

Phylogenetic effects

48
Q

Species-Energy Hypothesis

A

More productive areas can support more diversity because:

1) More energy -> faster speciation
2) Large Populations -> Low Extinction

49
Q

What geologic period are we in and where does this fall within earth’s natural climate cycles?

A

We are in the Holocene/Anthropocene epoch of the Quaternary Period within the Cenozoic Era, which is in the Phanerozoic Eon.

The Holocene is part of a warming period, but should start to cool soon.

50
Q

Jack Williams

A

(UW Geog) How past climate change relates to today; climate forecasting.

51
Q

Why is diversity greatest in the tropics?

A

1) Time
2) Species-energy hypothesis
3) Higher variability in resources
4) Tropical spp have lower enviro. toleranced
5) Area - more land in tropics over time
6) Mid-domain hypothesis (easier to have diversity bc its not an extreme on the earth)

52
Q

Phylogenetic Effect

A

The existence of patterns of diversity that are due to evolutionary intertia

53
Q

At what scale is landscape ecology conducted?

A

Whatever scale you choose, as long as you can observe heterogeneity.

54
Q

What measures can be used to characterize and quantify a landscape in terms of its COMPOSITION and SPATIAL CONFIGURATION?

A

COMPOSITION: Proportion occupied

Relative richness

Diversity

Dominance

SPATIAL CONFIGURATION: contagion

Patch Size

Edge/Area

Proximity Index

55
Q

What two concepts lie at the core of landscape ecology?

A

PATTERN

PROCESS

56
Q

How can organisms influence landscape patterns?

A

Adaptive plant traits (serotinous cones)

Life history strategies (post-fire resprouting)

57
Q

What metrics are used to characterize disturbance regimes?

A

Frequency

Size

Intensity/Severity

Duration

58
Q

Monica Turner

A

(UW) Disturbance and Landscape Ecology of the YELLOWSTONE FIRE

59
Q

Why are fish populations and demographics experiencing negative impacts?

A

Technological advances

60
Q

What are the four conceptual phases in which a fishery can exist?

A

UNDEVELOPED

DEVELOPING

MATURE

SENESCENT (Heading to collapse)

61
Q

Marine Protected Areas

A

Like nature preservations but for the ocean.

Have been very successful in conserving marine ecosystem health

Improve spp abundance, size, productivity, and diversity, and these can spill over to outside the boundaries

62
Q

Catch Shares

A

Everyone gets an even amount of the fish that were caught in a particular area, so as to encourage law compliance and prevent overfishing.

63
Q

Boris Worm

Ransom Myers

A

Study Overexpoitation of fisheries

Found that we are severely overfishing the oceans

~10% of fish left from the 1950s

64
Q

Daniel Pauly

A

Online fish database

Big player in understanding overexploitation

Coined “Fishing Down Food Webs”

65
Q

Tragedy of the Commons

A

Everyone shares a resource, and continue to deplete it despite knowing that it will run out because of their activity.

66
Q

How do you determine Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) of a fishery?

A

Harvest when their population is at K/2 because that is when they are increasing the quickest in the LOGISTIC growth model

67
Q

Individual Transferable Quotas

A

A transferable fishing quota given to an individual that is based on a rigid Total Allowable Catch for an area.

It is a type of catch-share that allows fishermen to sell and trade quotas according to how much they can catch.

68
Q

Garrett Hardin

A

TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS

69
Q

Jim Estes

A

Trophic cascades of removing killer whales

Effectively increased kelp in the ecosystems where whales occurred

70
Q

Why don’t fisheries always work well using the MSY calculations?

A
  1. Population not necessarily controlled by logistic equation
  2. K is difficult to pinpoint
  3. Time lags can occur
  4. Age/Stage structure not considered
  5. Immigration/Emigration not accounted for
  6. Trophic interactions ignored (bycatch feedback)
  7. Other ecosystem impacts (bycatch, habitat damage)
71
Q

Why do population projections sometimes differ so much?

A

We don’t know our K on earth

72
Q

What are two of the most important factors in determining the impact of human population on the environment?

A

1) Total population size
2) Per capita consumption of resources

73
Q

Demographic Transition

A

1->2: Advances in Agruculture and Pop Health

2->3: Contraceptives, Advancement of Women

3->4: Population has reached stable levels

74
Q

Heinz von Foerster

A

Showed that humans had HYPERBOLIC growth and would reach “infinity” on 11/13/2026

Was true until 70’s or 80’s

75
Q

Paul Ehrlich

John Holdren

A

Ehrlich -> Stanford
Holdren -> Obama Admin.

Together came up with the equation for Human Enviro Impact

C=PAT

C=HEI, P=pop size, A=affluence (GDP/person), T=technology (energy const/GDP)

76
Q

What are the primary ways that humans cause extinction?

A

Habitat Loss/Degradation

Non-native species

Overexploitation

Pollution

Disease

Climate Change

77
Q

What kinds of populations are especially vulnerable to extinction and why?

A

SMALL populations

Due to stochasticity

HOWEVER, populations that are at once large can also go extinct due to interactions with humans

78
Q

What are some values of biodiversity?

A

Ecosystem persistence

Efficiency of energy use

Ecosystem services (pollination, water filtration)

Aesthetic value

Recreational Value

Indicators of Enviro. Quality

etc.

79
Q

What is the average “life span” of a species until it goes extinct?

A

~ 1-10 million years

80
Q

What is the background extinction rate?

What is the current extinction rate?

A

1 species/yr

1 species/20 min

(~27,000 spp./yr)

81
Q

What are some pathways to extinction?

A

Being a specialist

“Slow” life history traits

Small populations

Low dispersal ability

High value to humans/feared by humans

Loss of habitat

Low genetic diversity

etc.

82
Q

Extinction Vortex

A
83
Q

Population Viability Analysis (PVA)

A

A statistical analysis used to find out how long a species is likely to survive if no conservation practices are enacted.

84
Q

Minimum Viable Population

A

The smallest population that can sustain itself in the face of environmental variation

85
Q

Rule of 10s

A

10% of the species pass from one stage to the next in the process of introduction and invasion, suggesting the likelihood of invasion is very low

86
Q

What are some characteristics of invasive species?

A

Generalists

Allelopathic

High reproduction rate

Escape natural controls

Good dispersers

Short generation time

Fast population growth rate

Good competitors

etc.

87
Q

What are some characteristics of vulnerable ecosystems to invasion?

A

Human-altered

Disturbance areas

Fewer dispersal barriers

Productive systems

Absence of predators/pathogens

Simple communities -> low diversity

88
Q

What is the best way to manage invasive species?

A

Depends, but usually involves integrating multiple methods as opposed to utilizing a single method.

89
Q

What are the steps to a species becoming an established invasive species?

A
90
Q

What are some ecological and economic impacts of invasive species?

A

Ecological: alter food webs, endanger other species, change hydrology, disturbance frequency

Economic: Clog pipes, ?

91
Q

Biotic resistance hypothesis

A

species-rich communities are more resistant to invasion because they use resources more efficiently than communities with low species-richness.

92
Q

Enemy release hypothesis

A

Invasives do so well because they do not encounter their traditional predators/pathogens that limit them in their native environments

93
Q

Evolution of Increased Competitive Ability (EICA)

A

Stems off of the enemy release hypothesis, so that they are able to use the energy saved from escaping predators and use it to increase viability/evolution.

94
Q

Pre-adaptation

A

When a species uses a previously-adapted trait for a use that it was not intended for, but nonetheless helps it.

Ex: feathers for show on dinosaurs –> use to fly

Sweat glands —> Mammary glands

95
Q

Early Detection Rapid Response (EDRR)

A

The best way to deal with invasives and have a chance of preventing them.

Detect them early, and respond quickly.

96
Q

Banu Subramaniam

A

Critiques use of the term “invasive species”

we should take a more holistic approach

We should be proactive in improving environmental quality and sustainability rather than individual species

97
Q

What is the general pattern in the relationship between species richness and productivity?

A

Hump-shaped.

Species richness initially goes up with productivity, then goes down.

98
Q

What are the multiple definitions of stability?

A

Variability

Resistance to change

Recovery after disturbance (resilience)

99
Q

What is the general response of productivity to increased diversity?

A

Increased productivity with increased diversity, but productivity levels off at a certain point.

100
Q

Why does productivity increase with increasing diversity?

A

1: Niche partitioning
2: Facilitation
3: Sampling effect

101
Q

What did the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment do?

A

It categorized ecosystem services at a global scale into:

Provisioning resources

Regulating resources

Supporting resources

Cultural resources

102
Q

Philip Grime

A

Found the hump-shaped relationship of the response of richness to increasing productivity

103
Q

Gretchen Daily

A

BIG supporter of the valuation of ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

wrote software to help estimate it

104
Q

What topics in ecological theory play a role in reserve design?

A

Metapopulations (Metacommunities)

Island Biogeography

105
Q

What are some ecological processes promoted by habitat corridors?

A

Seed dispersal

Pollination

Seed predation

Plant Diversity

106
Q

No-analogue Communities

A

Communities that will exist due to climate change that have never occurred before, due to differential abiotic tolerances for species overlapping

107
Q

Robert Whittaker

A

Took lots of data on the Klamath-Siskyou Mountains across lots of enviro gradients.

Wet <—> Dry

North Slope <—> South Slope

Soil Types

Forest types

Temperatures

108
Q

Biogeographic Affinity

A

Northerly vs Southerly species occurring on different slopes of a mountain.

Southerly will do better with climate change because they are adapted to warmer and drier.

109
Q

How does ecological niche modeling work?

A

Take data from plots where spp occur

Make a niche cloud on the map

Extend niche map to areas that will develop similar conditions due to climate change

110
Q

Ecological contingency

A

The idea that climate change will be noticeable in different amounts in different areas

111
Q

Why are reference states for ecological restoration difficult to identify?

A

Difficult to define

May change over time

Can be influenced by other global changes (Climate change)

112
Q

What impacts does land use history have on ecosystems?

A
  1. Agriculture
  2. Forestry
  3. Modification of natural disturbance regimes
  4. Manipulation of animal populations

Botany 460 (4 decks)

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