Exam 3 Flashcards

Question

What mechanism leads to scarring and fibrosis in pneumoconiosis?

Answer 1

Macrophages engulf particles → release lysozymes → inflammatory damage ## Footnote This process results in progressive dyspnea and restrictive + obstructive features.

Answer 2

Disorders characterized by decreased lung expansion due to: * Lung parenchyma disease * Pleural abnormalities * Chest wall deformities * Neuromuscular dysfunction ## Footnote These disorders can be acute or chronic.

Answer 3

* Total Lung Capacity (TLC) * Vital Capacity (VC) * Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) * Residual Volume (RV) ## Footnote These changes reflect the decreased ability of the lungs to expand.

Answer 4

↓ PaO₂ (hypoxemia) and normal or ↓ PaCO₂ ## Footnote These findings indicate impaired gas exchange.

Answer 5

Infiltration of alveolar walls by inflammatory cells, fluid, and connective tissue ## Footnote This leads to fibroblast proliferation and irreversible fibrosis.

Answer 6

* Progressive dyspnea * Dry cough * Fatigue ## Footnote These symptoms reflect lung function impairment.

Answer 7

Formation of non-caseating granulomas ## Footnote These granulomas are collections of epithelioid and immune cells.

Answer 8

Corticosteroids to reduce inflammation ## Footnote Early detection leads to better outcomes.

Answer 9

Immune-mediated alveolitis and bronchiolitis due to occupational exposure to inhaled organic dusts ## Footnote Examples include moldy hay and bird droppings.

Answer 10

* Fever * Chills * Cough * Dyspnea ## Footnote Chronic exposure can lead to progressive pulmonary fibrosis.

Answer 11

Direct or indirect injury to the alveolar-capillary membrane ## Footnote Common causes include sepsis, trauma, and pneumonia.

Answer 12

↑ Capillary permeability → protein-rich edema ## Footnote This leads to alveolar collapse and pulmonary vascular damage.

Answer 13

* Grunting * Nasal flaring * Retractions * Cyanosis ## Footnote These signs indicate severe respiratory distress in infants.

Answer 14

* Intracellular fluid (ICF) * Extracellular fluid (ECF) ## Footnote ICF is ~2/3 of total body water, while ECF includes plasma and interstitial fluid.

Answer 15

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) ## Footnote It is produced in the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary.

Answer 16

↓ Na⁺ concentration in plasma due to: * Excess water retention * Loss of Na⁺ ## Footnote Conditions like SIADH and diuretics can contribute.

Answer 17

Accumulation of fluid in interstitial space ## Footnote It can occur due to increased capillary hydrostatic pressure or decreased oncotic pressure.

Answer 18

* Hyperpolarized membranes * Muscle weakness * EKG changes ## Footnote Flattened T waves and U waves are common EKG findings.

Answer 19

7.35–7.45 ## Footnote Even small deviations can have serious consequences.

Answer 20

Excess acid or bicarbonate loss leading to ↓ HCO₃⁻ ## Footnote Compensation occurs through hyperventilation.

Answer 21

Diabetes Mellitus ## Footnote It affects over 18 million in the U.S. and over 250 million worldwide.

Answer 22

Autoimmune destruction of pancreatic β-cells leading to absolute insulin deficiency ## Footnote It accounts for ~5–10% of diabetes cases.

Answer 23

Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State (HHS) or Nonketotic Coma ## Footnote T2DM is characterized by insulin resistance and eventual β-cell dysfunction.

Answer 24

* Fetal macrosomia * Neonatal hypoglycemia * Increased maternal risk for T2DM later in life ## Footnote GDM occurs in 2–5% of pregnancies.

Answer 25

Occurs in 2–5% of pregnancies due to increased insulin demands not being met ## Footnote Risks include fetal macrosomia, neonatal hypoglycemia, and increased maternal risk for T2DM later in life.

Answer 26

* Impaired fasting glucose (IFG) * Impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) ## Footnote Often asymptomatic and associated with increased risk of T2DM and cardiovascular disease.

Answer 27

* Diet * Exercise ## Footnote These changes can delay or prevent progression to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

Answer 28

* Atherosclerosis * Increased risk for myocardial infarction (MI) * Increased risk for stroke (CVA) ## Footnote Tight glucose control has limited effect on macrovascular disease.

Answer 29

* Retinopathy * Nephropathy * Neuropathy ## Footnote These are due to thickening of capillary basement membranes and endothelial dysfunction.

Answer 30

* Capillary hemorrhages * Microaneurysms * Neovascularization leading to vision loss ## Footnote Can result in potential blindness.

Answer 31

Characterized by glomerulosclerosis and decreased Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR); may progress to End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) ## Footnote Symptoms include proteinuria.

Answer 32

* Autonomic: GI dysmotility, bladder dysfunction, erectile dysfunction * Peripheral sensory: loss of protective sensation, increased risk for ulcers, infections, amputations ## Footnote May also include paresthesias, burning, and numbness.

Answer 33

Metformin (Biguanide) ## Footnote It decreases hepatic glucose production and increases peripheral insulin sensitivity without causing hypoglycemia.

Answer 34

* Rapid-acting * Intermediate-acting * Long-acting ## Footnote Insulin is required in all T1DM and often needed in advanced T2DM.

Answer 35

* ~125 mL/min in men * ~115 mL/min in women ## Footnote GFR is regulated by autoregulation mechanisms.

Answer 36

* Diabetes * Hypertension ## Footnote CKD is defined as GFR <60 mL/min for ≥3 months.

Answer 37

* Decreased Renal Reserve * Renal Insufficiency * End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) ## Footnote Each stage corresponds to increasing nephron loss and severity of symptoms.

Answer 38

Secreted in response to low serum calcium (Ca²⁺); increases GI absorption of calcium, bone resorption, and renal Ca²⁺ reabsorption ## Footnote Also increases phosphate excretion.

Answer 39

Necessary for intestinal calcium absorption and acts synergistically with PTH ## Footnote It is synthesized in the skin and activated in the liver and kidney.

Answer 40

* Weight loss * Tachycardia * Heat intolerance * Exophthalmos * Goiter ## Footnote Often associated with Graves’ disease.

Answer 41

* Osteoporosis * Kidney stones * Dehydration * Polyuria ## Footnote Caused by parathyroid adenoma or secondary to chronic renal failure.

Answer 42

Negative feedback ## Footnote Types of feedback loops include ultra-short, short, and long loops.

Answer 43

* Primary: Dysfunction of the target gland * Secondary: Dysfunction of the pituitary gland ## Footnote Tertiary dysfunction refers to hypothalamic dysfunction.

Answer 44

Thyroid C (parafollicular) cells ## Footnote Calcitonin inhibits osteoclasts, leading to net bone deposition.

Answer 45

Minor role ## Footnote Calcitonin primarily inhibits osteoclast activity.

Answer 46

Parathyroid adenoma ## Footnote Hyperparathyroidism can also occur secondary to chronic renal failure.

Answer 47

↑ Bone resorption, ↑ Serum calcium, Dehydration, polyuria ## Footnote Increased bone resorption can lead to osteoporosis and kidney stones.

Answer 48

Parathyroidectomy ## Footnote Surgical removal of the parathyroid glands is the primary treatment.

Answer 49

Surgical removal, Congenital absence ## Footnote Surgical removal often occurs post-thyroidectomy.

Answer 50

Neuromuscular irritability, Hypocalcemia ## Footnote Symptoms include tetany and paresthesias.

Answer 51

Calcium and vitamin D supplementation ## Footnote This treatment helps to manage symptoms of hypocalcemia.

Answer 52

Cortisol ## Footnote Cortisol is a glucocorticoid regulated by ACTH from the anterior pituitary.

Answer 53

↑ Gluconeogenesis, ↑ Protein catabolism, ↑ Appetite, ↓ Inflammation ## Footnote Cortisol also supports vascular tone and blood pressure.

Answer 54

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) ## Footnote Aldosterone regulates sodium and potassium exchange in the distal nephron.

Answer 55

Regulates Na⁺/K⁺ exchange, Promotes sodium reabsorption, Supports blood volume and pressure ## Footnote Aldosterone is crucial for maintaining electrolyte balance.

Answer 56

Adrenal Insufficiency ## Footnote It can be primary due to autoimmune destruction or secondary due to decreased ACTH.

Answer 57

Hypoglycemia, Hypotension, Hyperkalemia, Fatigue, Weight loss ## Footnote Skin hyperpigmentation occurs only in primary Addison’s Disease.

Answer 58

Hormone replacement with glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids ## Footnote Common medications include hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone.

Answer 59

Any cause of excess cortisol ## Footnote Causes include exogenous steroids and adrenal tumors.

Answer 60

Cushing’s Disease is due to a pituitary adenoma secreting excess ACTH ## Footnote Cushing’s Syndrome can have multiple causes beyond pituitary adenoma.

Answer 61

Central obesity, Moon face, Buffalo hump, Striae, Hypertension, Hyperglycemia ## Footnote Symptoms may also include muscle wasting and psychiatric disturbances.

Answer 62

Surgery, Radiation, Medications to block cortisol synthesis ## Footnote Medications may include mitotane.