Exam 3 Flashcards
Characteristics of fermentation
Occurs when oxygen is low or not present
Extremely inefficient
Fermentations input and output
uses glycolysis to create 2 NADH and 2 ATP and changes NADH to NAD+ by giving electrons to different acceptor
Catabolic pathways
Set of metabolic pathways (chain of reactions) that break down molecules Ex. triglycerides can be broken down for Cellular respiration
Reactive oxygen species (ROS)
Created when oxygen picks up extra e- from other points then the last electron donor (highly reactive and damaging to body)
Where does photosynthesis take place
The chloroplast
The two different spaces involved in photosynthesis within the chloroplast
Stroma( Calvin cycle)
Thylakoid membrane (light dependent)
Chlorophylls
Photosynthetic pigments that mainly absorb purple/blue and red light, reflect green
Where are the photosynthetic pigments located
Inside of the thylakoid
Carotenoids
absorb blue/green light, usually reflect yellow orange or red
* most important: act as antioxidants to neutralize free radicals (atoms that lost an electron from high energy light)
Light dependent reactions or light capturing
This is the stage that involves pigments in the chloroplast
uses: light energy and water as well as ADP + p, as well as NADP+ + H+ produce
Produces: O2(byproduct), ATP, NADPH
Calvin cycle (light independent reactions)
Uses: the chemical energy made in light capturing reactions (ATP, NADPH) and CO2
Produces: Glucose (uses carbons from CO2),
Photosystem II (light dependent reactions)
exist along the membrane of the thylakoid, is two chloroplast molecules that exist to absorb light energy to split water into oxygen, H+ ions and electrons
Photosystem I (light dependent reactions)
exist along the membrane of the thylakoid, used second and is responsible for absorbing light and using the electrons produced from photosystem II in order to turn 2NADP+ into 2NADPH
ATP synthase in photosynthesis
uses the H+ ion gradient produced by photosystem II in order to produce ATP from ADP+
Cytochrome complex
exist along the membrane of thylakoid, essentially serves as a link for electrons between photosystem II and photosystem I
Photorespiration
Flaw involving Rubisco, both CO2 and O2 can bind to the active sites, when O2 binds it inhibits sugar production
Rubisco
Enzyme responsible for catalyzing the addition of CO2 to the five carbon sugar(RuBP)
Why do CAM plants stockpile CO2 at night
Diffusion of oxygen into the plant would be too high due to the hot environment, this would increase the rate of photorespiration
How do C4 plants get around photorespiration
They stockpile their carbon around rubisco which prevents O2 from binding to it
C3 plants
found in normal temperature environments, don’t do anything special with CO2 as they don’t need to worry as much about O2 diffusion
Genome
All of the genetic material contained within a cell (all non reproductive cells have the same genome)
Chromosomes
1 continuous strand of DNA (created when DNA coils in on histones)
*23 pairs in humans
Gene
segment of DNA that codes for a certain polypeptide molecule (protien or nucleotide)
Allele
different versions of a gene that code for different versions of a trait
PCR(Polymerase chain reaction)
allows stretches of DNA to be copied billons of times so they can be used
Works by raising the temperature to separate the DNA, primers attach at a certain point of the DNA, DNA polymerase then adds complementary DNA from the point of the primer and on, this is repeated many times
Gel electrophoresis
separates segments of DNA based on their size, DNA has a negative charge so its pulled to the positive charge
Smaller molecules of DNA will move faster
Restriction enzymes
Used to cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequence
Interphase
Happens before mitosis can begin, during this time the cell is growing and duplicating its DNA
Prophase
The DNA in the nucleus condenses into chromosomes, the spindle apparatus starts to form
Prometaphase
Dissolving of nuclear membrane, Microtubules attach to the kinetochores
Metaphase
Microtubules line the chromosomes up in the middle of the cell
Anaphase
Microtubules pull the chromosomes apart separating them into chromatids
Telophase
Two nucleuses form, chromosomes decondense, structural elements deconstruct and cell starts to split
Cytokinesis
Not technically apart of mitosis, involves the splitting of the cytoplasm to form the two new cells
Mitotic checkpoints
Checkpoints exist during Mitosis that make processes are running as they should
M phase checkpoints:
Chromosomes have attached to spindle apparatus, chromosomes have properly segregated
G1 checkpoint
Cell size is adequate, nutrients are sufficient, DNA is undamaged
G2 checkpoint
DNA is undamaged
Chromosomes have replicated
Proto-oncogenes
Genes responsible for promoting cell growth, problem if stuck on
Oncogenes
Mutated versions of proto-oncogenes, these can contribute to someone developing cancer
Tumor suppressor genes
inhibit cell growth/differentiation, if permanently turned off becomes problem
Mutator genes
involved in the repair of DNA if mutations occur, Loss of function leaves you more prone to mutations
Aneuploidy
Organism has irregular number of chromosomes for their species
Monosomy
One less than typical amount
Trisomy, one more than typical amount of chromosomes
Meiosis vs mitosis
Same general stages main difference in number of chromosomes
No duplication of DNA in miosis, this leads to cells being haploids by the time that meiosis is over
Genetic variability and meiosis
Each of the offspring get some combination of the chromosomes you got from each of your parents
Random fertilization leads to more possible outcomes
Crossing over of homologous chromosomes leads to more genetic variability
Gene drive
An edit in an organisms gene that changes the chance of inheritance for a specific allele, this can be used to introduce changes in a large population
Difference between meiosis I and meiosis II
Meiosis I involves the splitting of TWO homologous chromosome pairs while meiosis II involves the splitting of chromatids
gene locus
The specific spot where a gene is located on a chromosome
autosomal chromosomes
All of the chromosomes that make up the genome except for the one pair of sex chromosomes
CRISPR characteristics
utilizes CAS proteins to cleave DNA then makes edits to the DNA, can add or cut out DNA.
Differs from other genetic tools in that its simpler, more precise and more cost efficient
Difference between sister chromatids and homologous chromosomes
sister chromatids are identical copies of the same chromosome while homologous chromosomes are pairs of chromosomes that carry different versions of the same genes
Cleavage furrow and cell plate
The cleavage furrow is the indentation in the animal cell that eventually leads to them being split apart (cytokinesis)
The cell plate is used in plant cells for cytokinesis, utilization of microtubules that join at either end of the cell wall eventually becoming the cell wall an separating the two cells
