Exam 3

Question 1

What is sleep and its characteristics? Why do we sleep?

Answer 1

Sleep is a periodic loss/change of consciousness. It is not a passive state of non-waking like a coma, but instead is a restorative state triggered by the brain.

Characteristics of sleep: immobility (reduced activity), posture (distinct position indicating they are in a sleeping state), responsivity (reduced responsivity to things in the world), reversibility (a rapidly reversible state)

Question 2

Describe the stages of sleep, including their brain waves.

Answer 2

Awake (drowsiness): irregular activity - beta for alert, alpha for relaxed

Stage 1 (fall asleep): theta activity, EMG shows muscles still active, EOG shows gentle eye movements
Stage 2 (sleep deeper): small spikes in EEG activity
Stage 3 (less responsive to stimuli): delta activity appears when neurons dive periodically all at once - slow wave sleep + reduced muscle tone on EMG
Stage 4 (very deep sleep): continuous delta waves - slow wave sleep

REM: EEG rapidly shifts stages 3, 2, 1, EOG shows rapid eye movements, EMG shows loss of muscle tone but hands and feet occasionally twitch

Question 3

What are the effects of sleep deprivation and sleep restriction?

Answer 3

After a succession of under 5-6 hour nights, we accumulate a sleep debt that cannot be satisfied by one long sleep.

Some effects of both include lower sociality and optimism, higher irritability, and fatigue. There can also be a substantial lapse in attention, vigilance, alertness, and reaction time. Impaired functions for judgement, planning, concentration, self-control, high-level performance, and memory formation/recall as well.

Sleep restriction also increases likelihood of depression, weakened immune system and higher chance of diseases/illnesses, even potentially some correlations with cancer.

Question 4

Describe some areas of the brain related to sleep.

Answer 4

AFFECTED BY TSD AND SLEEP RESTRICTION
Parietal lobe: substantial lapses in attention and reaction time
Prefrontal cortex: responsible for judgement, planning, concentration, productivity, self-control when executive function is impaired

REM
Pons: neurons in pons drives REM sleep, which will affect sleep states if damaged + inhibitory neurons paralyze body so dreams are not acted out

NREM (slow wave sleep)
Generated by brain stem, pons, basal forebrain, preoptic area of hypothalamus - if destroyed, sleeps less

Question 5

Describe some potential mechanisms of restoration in sleep.

Answer 5

** restless and repairs damaged neurons
** REM and NREM help modify neural connections to build enduring memories
** pituitary gland secretes growth hormone necessary for muscle development
** promotes function of glymphatic system in brain to clear wastes, where glia and astrocytes shrink so fluid can move through empty space

Theories:
- could have played protective, evolutionary role
- could conserve some energy
- could promote creative problem solving

Question 6

Describe circadian rhythms, their inputs, and the responsible brain areas.

Answer 6

Circadian rhythms: Internal biological clock that determines
- when hungry vs when not hungry
- blood sugar
- melatonin
- body temperature
- arousal
and is altered by age and experience, is disrupted by changes in sleep routine

“Master Clock”: suprachiasmatic nucleus (region in hypothalamus):
- changes in energy level/mood/physiology/efficiency
- zeitbergers = outside cues that set the clock
- is confused by blue light that activate light-sensitive proteins in eye

Pineal Gland: light suppresses melatonin release

Question 7

Why do we dream?

Answer 7

Dream theories
** activation synthesis: REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random stimuli and memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into narrative

• freud’s wish-fulfillment: hidden desires manifesting
• information processing: help sort out day’s events and consolidate memories
• physiological function: regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways
• cognitive development: dream content reflects dreamers’ level of knowledge and understanding to simulate lives

Question 8

Describe disorders associated with sleep

Answer 8

• Insomnia: inability to start or maintain state of sleep
• Sleep apnea: one cause of insomnia where unable to sleep and breathe at the same time
• Narcolepsy: difficulty maintaining wakefulness
• Cataplexy: stuck by paralysis but conscious, triggered by strong emotions (feature of narcolepsy)
• Sleep-walking: occurs in stage 4 sleep
• Sleep-talking: can occur in REM sleep or other stages
• Night Terrors: stage 4 sleep ≠ nightmares, most commonly affects children

Question 9

Are all memories equally deep? What’s the difference between recall and recognition?

(What did Jay mean about your studying when he said, “Recognition is the enemy!”)

Answer 9

Different types are stored across different, interconnected brain regions

Recall is to retrieve information which is not currently in conscious awareness, while recognition is using triggers or cues to remind you of memory but not being able to retrieve full knowledge of it.

Relearning = argem with math (unable to fully recall) and is good way to learn by practice and repetition

Question 10

Describe the three types of memory in the classic information processing model (sensory, working,
long-term)

Answer 10

Sensory: immediate recording of sensory information in the memory system, is first stage in forming explicit memories

Working: “storage” space where information can be kept through rehearsal and where memory is worked into conscious thoughts and processes (manipulating information), has limited capacity (7 +/- 2 numbers) of information one can accurately retrieve from working memory

Long-term: where some information from working memory is sent and spread across cortical areas (can be brought back into working memory to be accessed again), has no capacity unlike working memory, but can be difficult to retrieve information

Question 11

Describe the three processes (encoding, storage, retrieval)

Answer 11

Encoding: Process of learning new information, interpreting it, then altering it to be stored in memory.

Storage: Process of keeping and maintaining memories to be accessed later (short-term and long-term memory).

Retrieval: Process of accessing stored information and memories through recall, recognition, or relearning.

Question 12

How does the concept of “working memory” differ from that of “short-term memory”?

Answer 12

Working memory is a space to manipulate information. It is no longer referred to as “short-term memory” because it has been found to serve more functions than simply being just a storage space for memory - working memory is where the memory is worked into conscious thoughts and processes

Question 13

What does patient H.M. tell us about these terms: anterograde vs. retrograde amnesia, working
memory vs. long-term memory, explicit vs. implicit memory?

Describe how working with H.M.
came to these insights.

Answer 13

ANTEROgrade amnesia is the inability to form new memories, while RETROgrade amnesia is losing the ability to recall previously stored memories

Discoveries while working with HM (who had a lobectomy where his hippocampus was removed and was left with anterograde amnesia):
- found that there are different types of memory, since HM’s working memory wasn’t impaired and could maintain conversations and remember strings of numbers
- still able to form types of long-term memories via mirror-drawing test, classical conditioning, priming

Question 14

Describe how this lecture is directly related to improving your studying.

Answer 14

Strategies for memory formation:
- chunking
- mnemonics
- hierarchical learning
- spaced study
- testing effect
- making material personally meaningful

Levels of processing:
- shallow (structural, phonetic)
- deep (semantic, looking for meaning and intention)

Question 15

What happens in the brain during an emotional or stressful or arousing event, and in what way
does it influence memory?

Answer 15

Strong emotions like excitement or stress triggers hormone production and neuromodulatory (norepinephrine) release by telling neurons that the information is important to pay attention to, strengthening memory for those moments

• often positive, but can be negative (PTSD) = flashbulb memories

Question 16

Describe five retrieval cues. Again, what do these tell you about studying?

Answer 16

• PRIMING: individual’s exposure to a certain stimulus influences their response to a subsequent prompt, without any awareness of the connection
• CONTEXT-DEPENDENT MEMORY: external conditions, ability to remember information is best when retrieving in the same area that information was initially processed (encoding specificity principle states that context of a memory are most effective for generating active recall
• STATE-DEPENDENT MEMORY: internal conditions, best retrieval if state during encoding is the same when retrieving memory (mood-congruent memory states that we will recall experiences that match our current mood)
• SERIAL POSITION EFFECT: remember some info better than others because of order that information was received (primacy and recency effect)

Question 17

Describe the different ways that forgetting can occur (i.e. at multiple stages of the process).

Answer 17

• Encoding Failure: when information is processed, is filtered, altered, or lost
• Storage Decay: happens because of old age
• Retrieval Failure: not enough cues to remember/generate information
• Proactive Interference: old memories make it difficult to remember new information
• Retroactive Interference: new learning disrupts memory for old information

Note: humans cannot repress memories since more unlikely to forget traumatic experiences

Question 18

Describe evidence (including eyewitness studies) that our brains are not hard drives and that our
memories are not unchangeable, but rather susceptible to manipulation.

Answer 18

Misinformation Effect: nature of the question can corrupt memory (leading questions, think law). Memory is heavily biased by questions asked

Imagination Effect: inserting new details into memory if constantly exposed to false information, which generates fake memories

Reconsolidation Effect: the more a memory is reconstructed, the more likely it is to be distorted

Question 19

What information do we use in our learning? What are the three types?

Answer 19

We learn through association, consequences, and acquisition of mental information (by observing others and replicating behaviour)

Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Observational Learning

Question 20

Define Classical Conditioning and its properties (acquisition, expression, extinction, etc.)

Answer 20

Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a behaviour

Unconditioned stimulus produces unconditioned response. Repeatedly pair neutral stimulus with unconditioned stimulus to form association. Turns neutral stimulus into conditioned stimulus.

US –> UR ; NS + US = association ; NS –> CS/CR

Question 21

What is the purpose of Classical Conditioning? How is it valuable?

Answer 21

Classical conditioning is basic form of learning bc nervous system is designed to learn by association. Formation of memory is by strengthening the connection between synapses

Question 22

Define Operant Conditioning and its properties (acquisition, expression, extinction, etc.

Answer 22

Operant conditioning is the process of learning a behaviour through reinforcement or punishment. Once a behaviour is acquired, it is expressed when the subject expects a reward or wishes to avoid punishment. If a consequence doesn’t follow a behaviour anymore, the subject gradually stops performing that behaviour.

Question 23

What does Operant Conditioning tell us about our own everyday lives?

Answer 23

It tells us that our everyday behaviour is not random, and instead is heavily influenced by consequences of our actions, whether it be rewards or punishments that follow that behaviour.

Question 24

How does Operant Conditioning differ from Classical Conditioning?

Answer 24

Operant conditioning focuses on controllable behaviour (behaviours that we learn to adopt and act on), while classical conditioning is based on uncontrolled behaviour (external stimuli).

Question 25

Clearly define and separate positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.

Answer 25

Positive reinforcement is giving something good (ex. a treat) for doing an action, which results in more of that action.

Negative reinforcement is taking away something bad for doing an action, which results in more of that action (ex. taking medicine makes a headache go away).

Question 26

If you wanted to maximize a certain behaviour in someone, what reinforcement schedule
would you use?

Answer 26

You would use a continuous reinforcement schedule, which means that every time a certain behaviour or action is shown, they are rewarded for it (FR1).

Question 27

Is punishment an effective teaching method? Why or why not?

Answer 27

Punishment is not an effective teaching method because:
- Punished behaviour is supressed and not forgotten
- Punisher’s behaviour may be reinforced negatively (ex. parent noticing that yelling would get child to stop doing something, therefore parent yells more often)
- Punishment teaches individual to avoid the behaviour only in the presence of the authority figure, but okay elsewhere (learn to avoid getting caught rather than learn to not act that way)
- Teaches fear and sometimes increases aggression by modeling aggression as a way to solve one’s problems

Question 28

In what ways do classical and operant conditioning fail to consider cognition in learning?

Answer 28

Classical and operant conditioning fail to consider internal cognitive processes and focuses on observable behaviour instead.

Question 29

What is observational learning?

Answer 29

Higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating behaviour of others, especially vertebrates and primates (hence “monkey see, monkey do”).

Question 30

Describe the potential positive and negative effects of observational learning.

Answer 30

The benefits of observational learning are the prosocial effects, such as how observing kind behaviour in others can encourage you to act the same more often.

The drawbacks of observational learning include potentially adopting negative behaviour. For instance, observing discrimination or violence regularly can normalize such behaviour in individuals.

Question 31

What is cognition?

Answer 31

Cognition is the mental process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thoughts, experience, and senses. Ex. perception, decision-making, etc.

Question 32

What is rationality?

Answer 32

Rationality means to use reason to guide your judgement. “Being rational” means someone is acting in a way that results in a good outcome (long-term benefit).

Question 33

What is logic? Is our reasoning based primarily on logic?

Answer 33

Logic is a way of forming conclusions based on premises. It is a kind of reasoning about the world.

Humans are not very good at logic. Ex. conjunction fallacy: two combined statements cannot be more probable than just one of the statements.

Question 34

Define concepts and schema

Answer 34

Concepts is an organization or grouping of information such as life experiences.

A schema is a cluster of concepts; congitive sets (ex. Dogs come in many forms, and all of these forms are part of the overarching schema of a dog).

Question 35

Define prototype in the context of language and thought

Answer 35

Prototypes are an example from a concept that best represents that schema (ex. a golden retriever is a prototypical dog as people would remember it to represent dogs rather than another dog such as a chihuahua).

Question 36

How do computers typically solve problems? Why is this mode of problem solving not useful for our human lives?

Answer 36

Computers use algorithms to solve problems. This mode is not very effective for humans because although it guarantees a solution, it becomes extremely cumbersome as the problem space gets bigger and bigger.

Question 37

Describe heuristics and their benefits and drawbacks

Answer 37

Heuristics is a very simple and easy set of rules that usually guarantee a solution. Since real algorithmic thinking hardly happens in humans, heuristics allows us to solve problems and constrain the problem space. However, many criticize heuristics as very prone to biases.

Question 38

What is insight? How does it differ from other types of problem solving? How does it differ from the law of effect?

Answer 38

Insight requires reframing the information and organizing it differently in our head. Unlike other forms of problem-solving, insight is a spontaneous realization that does not rely on a specific process or testing.

Unlike the law of effect, insight does not rely on the association between behaviour and consequence, but rather focuses on cognitive restructuring and understanding.

Question 39

Describe the concept of Homo economicus. Do humans behave in this way?

Answer 39

Homo Economicus is the concept of a figurative human being who is purely rational and self-focused. Such an agent has consistent and stable preferences; he is entirely forward-looking, and pursues only his own self-interest.
ex. investor who is purely focused on maximizing profit

Humans do not behave in this way because behaviourists have historically classified humans to be irrational decision-makers who are easily influenced by emotion and cognitive bias

Question 40

What is prospect theory, and what does it suggest about the way we make decisions?

Answer 40

Prospect theory says that gains and losses aren’t equal in our heads (ex. 3% boost to grade feels less severe than a 3% loss of our grade).

Loss aversion: people tend to commit to riskier actions to offset previous losses (ex. “double-or-nothing” after losing)

Risk aversion: people tend to commit riskier actions less when winning as they don’t want to lose what they already won.

Certainty effect: a 100% certainty to gain something adds value to it (ex. an increase from a 50% to 60% winning rate feels less significant than a increase from 95% to 100%)

Question 41

What is intuition?

Answer 41

Intuition is the ability to understand something immediately without the need for conscious reasoning.

Question 42

Pros and cons of being a maximizer/satisficer

Answer 42

Maximizing: Cost-benefit analysis for everything by comparing all aspects and comparing pros and cons

Satisficing: have a certain criteria (ex. need salty and under $5) and will select the first thing you see

Maximizers tend to make better long-term decisions (eg. long-term partner), but likely to experience more decision regret.

Satisficers tend to be content with their decisions and have less anxiety or worry about them, but may not always make the most optimal decision for themselves.

Question 43

Describe some problems/errors with our decision-making abilities.

Answer 43

Our decision-making and problem-solving faces many obstacles such as confirmation bias, the Dunning-Kruger effect, hindsight, illusory correlation, belief perseverance, framing, sunk-cost fallacy, and gambler’s fallacy (no need to memorize all specific details).

Our emotions and precognitions influence our decision-making, and as a result we don’t always make the most optimal decision.

Question 44

What is creativity?

Answer 44

Creativity is the ability to produce new and valuable ideas. Creativity is bolstered through the ability and aptitude to learn, the general measures of intelligence, and the size of your working memory.

Question 45

In what ways do other species share and not share our intelligence and consciousness?

Answer 45

Other species display many cognitive skills with a wide range of comprehension and communication, just not language.

Question 46

What are the components of language?

Answer 46

Phonemes are the smallest sound units (ex. baby noises such as ma, ba, etc.)

Morphemes are phonemes put together to create the smallest sound unit that convey meaning (ex. ology is a morpheme because it isn’t an actual word itself, but conveys meaning that it relates to a study of something)

Grammar includes syntax which is the ordering of words into sentences.

Semantics is the overall meaning of your sounds (ex. tone such as sarcasm change the meaning of a statement)

Question 47

Can anyone become fluent in a language at any time in their lives? Describe the sensitive period

Answer 47

You can become fluent with perfect grammar in a language if starting before the age of 7-8. Time after will deteriorate your ability to perfect your grammar in a new language.

Question 48

Describe the two major brain areas implicated in language, and their putative functions.

Answer 48

Broca’s area:
- Located in left hemisphere in the premotor region
- Important in speech production
- Usually affects both reading and writing when damaged

Wernicke’s area:
- Located in the left hemisphere
- Important in speech comprehension
- Can still produce speech but will not be able to understand themselves

Question 49

How is language related to our thoughts? Can we only think in language?

Answer 49

Linguistic determinism: Language shapes our thought (ex. using different languages for different emotions in our heads)

Expanding language expands your ability to think: “Bilingual advantage” on cognitive tasks (attention and working memory is enhanced for bilingual individuals)

Question 50

Objective vs subjective value. What decreases subjective value?

Answer 50

Objective value in this case is a monetary value ($). Subjective value is how much we value something based on our circumstances. Subjective value declines with increasing delay, risk, and effort (ex. $20 now is worth more than $20 in 2 years even if inflation is taken out of equation).

Discount rate determines decision-making styles via impulsivity (eg. women are more likely to wait longer for a bigger reward)