exam 3

Question 1

Who was H.M., and what did his case reveal about memory

Answer 1

H.M. had his hippocampus removed to treat epilepsy, resulting in severe memory loss. This demonstrated the role of the hippocampus in forming new memories

Question 2

What is the difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia?

Answer 2

Anterograde amnesia: Inability to form new memories after injury.
Retrograde amnesia: Inability to access memories from before injury.

Question 3

What is the role of the hippocampus in memory?

Answer 3

Required for forming new declarative memories; damage impairs consolidation and retrieval.

Question 4

What are declarative and nondeclarative memories?

Answer 4

Declarative memory: Facts, people, events (“what” memory).
Nondeclarative memory: Skills, procedures, emotions (“how” memory).

Question 5

Which brain areas are associated with declarative and procedural memory?

Answer 5

Declarative memory: Hippocampus.
Procedural memory: Striatum.

Question 6

What is working memory, and what brain area manages it?

Answer 6

Temporary information storage while in use; managed by the prefrontal cortex

Question 7

What is long-term potentiation (LTP)

Answer 7

Strengthening of synaptic connections due to repeated activation, following the Hebb rule.

Question 8

How does LTP occur at the cellular level?

Answer 8

AMPA: Opens sodium channels.
NMDA: Allows calcium entry after magnesium block is removed.
Calcium: Activates αCaMKII, strengthening the synapse.

Question 9

How does neurogenesis relate to learning?

Answer 9

The hippocampus generates new neurons throughout life, supporting new learning.

Question 10

What role does sleep play in memory?

Answer 10

During sleep, the hippocampus transfers information to the cortex, consolidating memories.

Question 11

What are plaques and tangles in Alzheimer’s disease?

Answer 11

Plaques: Clumps of beta-amyloid protein interfering with neural signals.
Tangles: Abnormal tau protein accumulations inside neurons, causing cell death.

Question 12

Which genes are linked to early-onset Alzheimer’s disease?

Answer 12

APP, Presenilin 1, Presenilin 2, and APOE ε4.

Question 13

What are current treatments for Alzheimer’s disease?

Answer 13

Cholinesterase inhibitors and glutamate antagonists.
Treatments slow progression but do not cure the disease.

Question 14

What is the reserve hypothesis?

Answer 14

Greater cognitive reserve compensates for brain aging, reducing dementia risk

Question 15

What causes Korsakoff syndrome, and what are the symptoms?

Answer 15

Caused by chronic alcoholism and thiamine (B1) deficiency.
Symptoms: Anterograde amnesia, confabulation, and mammillary body damage.

Question 16

How is brain size related to intelligence?

Answer 16

Brain size (relative to body size) is somewhat correlated with intelligence.

Question 17

What is a theory of mind, and how does it relate to autism?

Answer 17

The ability to infer others’ thoughts based on experience; often lacking in individuals with ASD.

Question 18

What brain anomalies are linked to autism?

Answer 18

1. Issues in the brain stem, cerebellum, and temporal lobes.
2. Poor amygdala-prefrontal cortex coordination.
3. Decreased white matter causing unsynchronized activity.

Question 19

What environmental factors increase the risk of ASD?

Answer 19

Traffic pollution and maternal metabolic conditions (e.g., obesity, diabetes).

Question 20

What are the main symptoms of ADHD?

Answer 20

Impulsivity, inattention, and hyperactivity.

Question 21

Which brain regions are smaller in individuals with ADHD?

Answer 21

Prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, and caudate nucleus.

Question 22

What role do genetics play in ADHD?

Answer 22

1. 83% concordance in identical twins.
2. Genes involved in dopamine pathways and neural development.

Question 23

What environmental factors contribute to ADHD?

Answer 23

Brain injury, pregnancy complications, and lead exposure.

Question 24

What percentage of U.S. adults live with a diagnosable mental illness, and what percentage will experience one in their lifetime?

Answer 24

20% live with a diagnosable mental illness; 46% will experience one in their lifetime.

Question 25

Define “incidence” and “prevalence” in the context of mental disorders.

Answer 25

Incidence is the number of new cases in a specific time period; prevalence is the total count or percentage of cases at a specific time.

Question 26

What is schizophrenia, and what are some common symptoms?

Answer 26

Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by perceptual, emotional, and intellectual deficits, loss of reality, and dysfunction. Symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, paranoia, disordered thoughts, and social withdrawal.

Question 27

Differentiate between acute and chronic schizophrenia.

Answer 27

Acute schizophrenia develops suddenly, is more responsive to treatment, and has a better prognosis. Chronic schizophrenia develops gradually, persists longer, and has a poorer prognosis.

Question 28

What is the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia?

Answer 28

It suggests that excessive dopamine activity in the brain contributes to schizophrenia symptoms.

Question 29

How does the glutamate theory of schizophrenia differ from the dopamine hypothesis?

Answer 29

The glutamate theory suggests hypofunction of NMDA receptors leads to increased glutamate and dopamine, causing both positive and negative symptoms.

Question 30

What is anterograde amnesia?

Answer 30

Inability to form new memories after an injury.

Question 31

What is retrograde amnesia?

Answer 31

inability to access memories that preceded an injury, increasing with hippocampal damage extent.

Question 32

What is consolidation?

Answer 32

The process of forming a physical representation of a memory in the brain.