Exam 3 Flashcards
1
Q
What is semantic memory?
A
The organized knowledge about the world.
2
Q
What is a category?
A
A set of objects that belong together. ex. chairs
3
Q
What is a concept?
A
Refers to our mental representations of a category. Enables us to make inferences based on previous experience with the world. ex. How things are used.
4
Q
What is situated cognition approach?
A
We make use of information in the immediate environment or situation.
5
Q
What is a prototype?
A
It is when one item embodies the characteristics of an item the best.
6
Q
What is the prototype approach?
A
To decide whether a particular item belongs to a category by comparison to the prototype.
7
Q
What are the 3 main functions of concepts?
A
- Prediction (dangerous vs. not dangerous)
- Reasoning
- Communication (explaining and understanding)
8
Q
What is one benefit to thinking in terms of concepts?
A
It is efficient so that we know how to react in situations we have seen before.
9
Q
What are phonemes?
A
Basic sounds of language.
10
Q
What are the 5 things that help concepts come to mind?
A
- Stimulus features
- Context
- Priming
- Chronic Accessibility
- Goals
11
Q
What are examples of stimulus features that could bring up a concept?
A
Senses: bottom-up; then top-down.
12
Q
How can priming bring up concepts?
A
Things that are on your mind can activate concepts.
13
Q
What is chronic accessibility?
A
Things that are always on your mind can activate concepts. ex. PTSD, OCD, etc.
14
Q
What is the semantic priming effect?
A
It means that people respond more quickly to a stimulus if it was preceded by an item with similar meaning.
15
Q
What are the 3 possible ways that concepts could be represented mentally?
A
- Classical View
- Probabilistic View
- Theory- based view
16
Q
What does the classical view of how concepts are represented say?
A
Features of an item or person could be necessary or sufficient to their recognition.
17
Q
What is wrong with the classical view of how concepts are represented?
A
Not all concepts can be defined by necessary and sufficient features.
18
Q
What is Prototypicality?
A
The degree to which items are seen as central members of a category. (As opposed to boundaries- in groups and out groups)
19
Q
What effect does the typicality effect have on the generation of typical vs atypical events?
A
Typical instances are more likely to be generated first than atypical instances.
20
Q
What does family resemblance mean?
A
It means that no single attribute is shared by all examples of a concept but rather each has at least one in common.
21
Q
What does a graded structure mean?
A
It means that the most representative or prototypical members are first thought of.
22
Q
What are the 3 levels of categorization of concepts?
A
- Superordinate-level (general)
- Basic- level
- Subordinate-level (specific)
23
Q
What is the probabilistic view of how concepts are separated?
A
Having certain features makes it more likely that an instance belongs to a category.
24
Q
What is the prototype theory?
A
A concept is represented by a prototype (a generalization or abstraction)
25
What is an exemplar?
Examples of an item stored in memory.
26
What is the exemplar theory?
A conceptual category is represented by an instance of every exemplar or example in memory. We learn examples and then categorize based on those examples.
27
Why do some features of an object count for categorization but others do not?
It is due to their functions: An apple and a lawnmower. Both <100lbs., on earth, can not hear BUT one is for eating and one is for cutting.
28
What is the Theory-based view about how concepts are separated into categories?
Concepts are represented in terms of our theory about them. Theories determine which attributes count and which do not.
29
Which items are less likely to be categorized based on appearance?
Natural ones: ex. bat, skunk, raccoon.
30
Similarity enters into our search for explanations, how?
"like with like" - If the event was large than it must have had a large cause.
31
What is the overall belief about how concepts are represented?
Different concepts are represented differently.
32
Research has found some interesting things involving constructive and reconstructive processes, what are they?
- We construct during encoding
- We reconstruct during retrieval
* Gist remains intact, omission errors (minor), and normalization errors (to make the story more coherent).
33
What are schemas?
Organized knowledge about something.
34
What is a script?
A schema describing a typical sequence of events. ex. going to a restaurant
35
What is boundary extension?
Refers to our tendency to remember having viewed a greater portion of a scene than we actually did.
36
If you didn't have scripts what would you do every time you went to a restaurant?
You would have to learn the process over again.
37
Reconstructive errors often happen when _______is given to the participant after a short story?
The outcome. Participants will fill in the missing details and come to their own conclusions even if nothing was said about that one thing in the story.
38
How does knowledge affect the memories we remember?
They are based on our own theory of change and how we feel at the moment (we believe in stability)
39
What is incremental change?
People believe that you can only change in increments.
40
When we think about how we have changed over the years, what do people do without realizing it?
They believe that they improve over the years. Ex. 16 to now: more positive comments.
41
What is a problem?
Any situation in which a person has not reached their goal.
42
What are 3 features of every problem?
1. Initial state
2. Goal state
3. Obstacles
43
What is the first step to solving a problem?
Understand the problem: gain a mental representation of the problem
44
What are the 3 ways to represent a problem?
1. Symbols ex. math equation
2. Matrices: show all possible options
3. Visual images and diagrams
45
What do we mean by problem solving space?
Examine the mental representation of your problem and look at all possible situations and look for the solution.
46
What is an algorithm?
A method that involves a step-by-step learned procedure (exhaustive search)
-when a problem requires the same steps over and over again.
47
What is a heuristic?
General rules that are generally correct.
- Trying things that are most likely to reach a solution.
- Quicker
48
What is an analogy?
You employ a solution to a similar problem to the new problem you are faced with.
49
When individuals use analogies to solve problems, is it a deep memory process or a surface memory process?
Memory search is local or based on surface structure of the problem.
50
When using analogies, what type of individual does actually do deep similarity processing?
Experts.
51
How does the percent of individuals that figure out a problem depend on their representation of other stories?
The greater the representation of a story, the higher percentage of people who solve a problem without a hint.
52
What is the means-ends heuristic?
It involves dividing a problem into many smaller problems and solving each sub-problem. (effective and flexible)
53
What is the hill-climbing heuristic?
Select an alternative that seems to lead most directly toward the goal state. (Doesn't always work)
54
How do we achieve the solution to an insight problem?
Insight problems do not seem to have a step-by-step solution but come as a sudden realization.
55
What is confirmation bias?
The tendency to search for information that confirms preconceptions instead of things that would falsify the hypothesis.
56
What is an overactive top-down processing?
Using a mental set (past solutions) or functional fixedness (the usual functions or uses we assign to physical objects). *intellectual rigidity*
57
What is overconfidence when it comes to problem solving?
The tendency to overestimate accuracy of one's beliefs and judgements.
58
What are the two factors that influence problem solving abilities?
Expertise and creativity
59
What is Expertise?
Demonstrating consistently exceptional performance of tasks in a particular area.
60
What is the genius view about creativity?
That truly creative acts involve extraordinary people carrying out extraordinary thought processes.
61
What is the non-genius view about creativity?
Creative acts are mostly small variations on old themes (gradual steps)
62
What is parallel processing vs. serial processing?
Parallel processing: handling two or more things at once
| Serial processing: handling only one thing at a time.
63
What is creativity?
Requires solutions that are both novel and useful.
64
What is self-efficacy?
The belief that you have the ability to organize and carry out specific tasks
65
What is perseverance?
The ability to keep working on a task even when you encounter obstacles.
66
What is deductive reasoning?
Specific premises are given (true or false), formal logic specifies the rules we must use in order to draw conclusions.
67
What is conditional (propositional) reasoning?
Involves the relationship between conditions (asks whether the conclusion is valid or invalid)
68
What is syllogism?
Has 2 "truth claims" and a conclusion. Refers to quantities (all, none, some). Asks whether the conclusion is valid or invalid.
69
Determine the type of reasoning: -Some psychology majors are friendly people. -Some friendly people are concerned about poverty. -Therefore, some psychology majors are concerned about poverty.
Syllogism (quantity and 2 truth claims)
70
Determine the type of reasoning: -If an NAU student is enrolled in cognitive psy, then the student must have completed psy 101. -Ben has not completed psy 101. - Therefore Ben is not taking cog. psychology.
"If then" = Conditional
71
What is propositional calculus?
System for categorizing the kinds of reasoning used in analyzing propositions or statements.
- Proposition ("truth claim")
- Antecedent ("if..")
- Consequent ("then..")
72
What are conditional reasoning situations?
- Affirm Antecedent & deny consequent (Valid)
| - Deny Antecedent & affirm consequent (Fallacy)
73
What are 3 factors that make reasoning more difficult?
- Negatives
- Abstracts
- Prior beliefs
74
What is the Belief-bias effect?
Making judgements based on prior beliefs and general knowledge rather than the rules of logic.
75
What is decision making?
Assessing and choosing among several alternatives.
76
What is the representative heuristic when it comes to decision making?
Judging the likelihood of something based on how well it matches a certain population.
77
What is the conjunction rule?
The probability of the conjunction of two events cannot be larger than the probability of either of its constituent events.
78
What is a base rate?
How often the item occurs in the population.
79
What is the base rate fallacy?
Emphasizing representativeness, we pay little attention to important information about the base rate.
80
What is the availability heuristic?
Judging the frequency of things based on information currently available in memory.
81
What is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?
People make an estimate, anchor, and then make adjustments with more information.
82
Are adjustments usually large or small to an original anchor?
Adjustments are usually smaller than they should be.
83
What is loss aversion?
People tend to view loss as much worse than the pleasure of gain.
84
What is an endowment effect?
Something that belongs to me is worth more and therefore people will demand more.
85
What is the framing effect?
It demonstrated that the outcome of your decision can be influenced by two factors: context and framing.
86
What is descriptive invariance?
People should make the same choice no matter how a problem is described to them.
87
What is procedural invariance?
People make the same choice no matter what method we use to measure choice.
88
Do we prefer more or less choices?
Less.
| -Due to anticipated regret
89
What is the difference between maximizers and satisficers?
Maximizers: examine as many options as possible.
Satisficers: settle for something that is satisfactory.
90
What is language?
Spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them as we think and communicate.
91
What is psycholinguistics?
Study of how people use language.
92
What is Neurolinguistics?
The study for how the brain processes language.
93
What is aphasia?
Disruption of Wernicke's area and Broca's area.
94
What is Wernicke's area?
It is for the comprehension of language
95
What is Broca's area for?
It is for the formation of language.
96
What is a phoneme?
The smallest unit of spoken language: Bat, Cat differ by on phoneme.
97
What is a morpheme?
The smallest unit that carries meaning: re-, giraffe, -ing. "s" is its own unit of meaning =plural.
98
What are perceptual slots when it comes to linguistics?
Help understand language across different dialects. (range of sounds for one slot).
99
We are pattern recognition devices, what does that mean?
We learn the frequency of speech patterns and we realize which syllables often go together.
100
Why is phoneme perception so difficult?
1. Fast: alot at once.
2. Different people speak the same sentence differently.
3. Even on person doesn't speak the same all the time.
101
What is co-articulation?
Sounds of separate words blur together more than we think they do.
102
How does context affect perception of phonemes?
Context helps us perceive phonemes.
103
What is phoneme restoration effect?
Filling in missing phonemes using context.
104
What are visual cues that can affect the perception of phonemes?
Lip reading; it can make us re-think what we just heard.
105
What is grammar?
A system of rules that enable us to communicate with other effectively.
106
What is morphology?
Studies how we create words by combing morphemes.
107
What is syntax?
It is the sentence structure (shallow)
108
What are semantics?
Meanings of words and sentences (deep)
109
What is pragmatics?
Knowledge of social rules related to language use.
110
What is does phrase structure emphasize?
That we form sentences using a hierarchical structure that is based on grammatical building blocks.
111
What is the transformational grammar model?
Proposes innate language skills: emphasizes grammar not meaning.
112
What is the cognitive-functional approach?
Emphasizes that the purpose of language is to communicate meaning to others.
113
What factors affect language comprehension?
- Negatives
- Passives
- Nested structures
- Ambiguity
114
What are saccadic eye movements during reading?
- Rapid little jumps
- Centers fovea on target allowing for better acuity.
- Occurs between fixations.
115
What are the 3 theories of word recognition?
1. Direct-access hypothesis
2. Indirect-access hypothesis
3. Dual-Route hypothesis
116
What is the direct-access hypothesis in regard to word recognition?
We directly recognize words
117
What is the indirect-access hypothesis in regards to word recognition?
We first translate words into sounds
| -subvocalizations
118
What is the dual-route hypothesis in regards to word recognition?
We can use direct or in-direct hypothesis.
119
What is the whole-word approach for teaching reading?
Encourages identifying (whole) words by using context cues. (direct access)
120
What is the phonics approach for teaching reading?
Encourages identifying words by pronouncing individual letters. (indirect access)
121
What is the whole-language approach to teach reading?
Primary emphasis should be meaning. (enjoyable)
122
What is discourse?
Interrelated language units larger than a sentence.
123
What is Kintsch's tripartite model for understanding discourse?
1. Surface structure (sentence)
2. Propositions (deep structure- meaning)
3. Situation model (mental model of what text is about)
124
What do we tend to remember better, the sentence structure, the situation model, or the proposition?
The situation model (mental picture)
125
Does prior knowledge help or disable forming a situation model?
Prior knowledge helps form a mental picture.
126
When you are a baby which comes first language comprehension or production?
Language comprehension.
127
What are some decisions that go into speaking?
- What to talk about
- Which words to use
- What kind of sentence to form
- Tailor to listener.
- How to present the message (formal?)
- How fast to speak
128
What is lexical access?
Selecting what words you want to say from the word bank.
129
What are the 5 types of language production errors?
- Anticipations
- Perserverations
- Exchanges
- Blends
- Strands
130
What is an anticipation error in language production?
A later segment intrudes on an earlier one. ex. "Bake my bike"
131
What is a perserveration error in language production?
An earlier segement replaces a later one. ex. "I dreamed he droke his arm"
132
What is a sound exchange error in language production?
Two sound swap places. ex."Hold card cash."
133
What is a word exchange error in language production?
Words swap places in an utterance. ex. A fifty pound dog of bag food. (usually between a noun and noun or verb and verb.)
134
What is a blending error in the production of language?
The combining of two words. ex. "He hung it on the ward" (board and wall)
135
What are strand errors in the production of language?
Two content words exchanged but functional morphemes got left behind. ex. "Im not in the read for mooding"
136
What do speech errors tell us?
- Speech is planned in advance.
| - Syntax is also occurring separately.
