Exam 3 Flashcards
Chapter 8 - Chapter 11
Intelligence as a Single Trait
Some researchers view intelligence as a single trait that influences all aspects of cognitive functioning
General Intelligence (g)
influences ability on all intellectual tasks
Crystallized Intelligence
Factual knowledge (word meanings, capital of countries, math)
Fluid Intelligence
Ability to think on the spot (problem solving, inferential thinking)
Sternberg’s Theory of Successful Intelligence
In his view, success in life reflects people’s ability to build on their strengths, compensate their weaknesses and select environments in which they can be successful
Sternberg’s Three Fundamental Aspects of Intelligence
- Analytic = academic, what’s measured by traditional intelligence tests
- Creative = reasoning in novel circumstance, fining a way to problem solve
- Practical = reasoning about everyday problems, ringing a way to get to school after missing bus
Components of Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory
- Though that concept of intelligence and traditional tests of intelligence are too limited
- types of intelligence = spatial, linguistic, music ability, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalistic, and interpersonal
- proposes that people possess at least 8 kinds of intelligence
Advantages of Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence
its optimistic message - that children have a variety of strengths on which parents and teachers can build - has led to its having a large influence on education
Limitations of Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
- No reliable/valid tests of domains like musical or bodily-kinesthetic
- Not clear that these other domains are “forms of intelligence” rather than “special talents”
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
relative measure of intelligence
IQ Relation to Success
- IQ scores are a strong predictor of academic, economic, and occupational success
- Correlated quite strongly with school grades and test scores
- The better the IQ score = the better the job = better money
Genetic Contributions to Intelligence
- The genome substantially influences intelligence
- Increases with age - some genetics do not exert their effects until late in childhood
- All known correlations between individuals’ alleles of genes and IQ are very small
There is no Intelligence gene
Family Contributions to Intelligence
- Niches in the family “the smart one” “the athletic one”
- How much the family values education, number of books in the house, frequency of intellectual conversations
Societal Contributions to Intelligence
Effects of Poverty
- poor diet
- poor health care
- lack of intellectual stimulation
- poor schooling
HOME Scores
Home Observation of Measurement of the Environment
- correlated highly with IQ scores at 4.5 years old and correlated highly with school achievement
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
- Oral - first year of life, basic needs met by oral stimulation (eating drinking)
- Anal - second year of life, biological maturation, potty training
- Phallic - ages 3-6, interested in genital, superego emerges, desire to avoid guilt
- Latency - ages 6-12, sexual desire unconscious, energy into social and intellectual pursuits
(if fundamental needs are not met in any given stage, you become fixated on them and get stuck in that phase)
Id
present form birth, innate biological drives, pleasure principle
Ego
emerges later in first year, stands for reason and good sense, reality principle, develops into sense of “self”
Superego
emerges between 3-6, conscience, enables you to control behavior, results from internalization of social rules
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
- Basic Trust vs. Mistrust
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
- Initiative vs. Guilt
- Industry vs. Inferiority
- Identity vs. Role Confusion
Basic Trust vs. Mistrust
- first year of life
- success = sense of trust
- failure = sense of mistrust
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
- ages 1-3.5
- teach kids rules while still allowing freedom
- success = sense of autonomy
- failure = sense of shame/doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt
- ages 4-6
- successful internalization of parents’ standards = development of conscience
- success = sense of independence
- failure = sense of guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
- ages 6 to puberty
- crucial for ego development
- successful = sense of competence
- failure = sense of inferiority
Identity vs. Role Confusion
- teens to early adulthood
- achieve sense of identity, “who am I?”
- success = strong sense of self
- failure = confusion about what roles to take on
Conditioning
- we tend to repeat behaviors that are rewarded but not those that are punished
- every behavior is a result of reinforcement history
- intermittent reinforcement makes behaviors resistant to extinction
- there is more difficulty of extinguishing behavior that has been intermittently reinforced
Watson’s Behaviorism
children are products of social environments, parents should distance themselves and be objective with children (don’t kiss your children its better to shake hands)
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Bobo Doll Study
- will kids imitate aggressive acts they see preformed?
- kids less likely to imitate if model is punished
- even if did not imitate, would produce the behavior if given incentive
- boys were more physically aggressive, but girls were aggressive too if given inventive
Systematic Desensitization
technique used to eliminate anxiety/phobias through controlled exposure
Behavior Modification Strategy
- adjusting reinforcement contingencies to promote desired behavior and deter unwanted behavior
- “time out” removed reinforcement so that unwanted behavior is not rewarded
Hostile Attribution Bias
- a general expectation that other are antagonistic to them
- leads children to search for evidence of hostile intent
- like to conclude that retaliation is the appropriate response to peer’s behavior
- early harsh parenting predicts social information-processing biases that persist into early adulthood
Ecological Theories of Development
- Microsystem
- Mesosystem
- Exosystem
- Macrosystem
- Chronosystem
Microsystem
- first level in which the child is embedded
- the activities and relationships in which the child directly participates
- becomes richer and more complex as the child grows older
Mesosystem
- encompasses the interconnections among the microsystem, such as family, peers, and schools
- supportive relations among these contexts can benefit the child
Exosystem
- composes settings that the child may not directly be a part of but that can still influence developmental t
- parental workplaces, for example, can affect the child in many ways, including policies about parental leave, flexible work hours, and on-site children
Macrosystem
- outer level of Bronfenbrenner’s model
- consists of the general beliefs, values, customs, and laws of the larger society in which all the other levels are embedded
Chronosystem
- historical changes that influence the other systems
- beliefs, values, customs, family structures, technologies change over time, with consequences to the child development
Imprinting
a process by which newborn birds and mammals of some species become attached to their mother at first sight and follow her everywhere, a behavior that ensures that the baby will stay near a source of protection and food
Parental-Investment Theory
parents are motivated by the drive to perpetuate their genes, which can happen only if their offspring survives long enough to pass those genes to the next generation
Delay of Gratification
being able to delay gratification is a fundamental skill…predicts future social, emotional, and academic competence (better than is predicted by IQ)
Berkely PhD Study
- 1950s, 80 Berkley graduate students underwent personality tests, IQ tests, and interviews
- social and emotional abilities were 4x more important in predicting professional success and prestige
Sommerville Study
- 40 year longitudinal study of 450 boys (2/3 from families on welfare, 1/3 had IQ below 90)
- no relationship between IQ and success
- childhood abilities to handle frustration, control emotions, and get along with other people did predict success in work life
Izard’s Discrete Emotions Theory
- emotions are innate
- each emotion is associated with a specific set of bodily and facial reactions
- emotions are distinct - even early in life
Sroufe’s Undifferentiated Emotions Theory
- early emotions not distinct
- environment plays a role in changing primitive emotions into more complex forms
- wariness/fear starts as startle/pain reactions
Functionalist Approach to Emotions
- emotions serve functions
- emphasize role of environment
Basic Emotions
Happiness
Fear
Anger
Surprise
Disgust
Sadness
Happiness
- between the 3rd and 8th weeks of life, infants begin to smile in reaction to external stimuli
- sometimes as early as 6-7 weeks, babies begin to exhibit social smiles
Fear
- by 7 months, initial signs of fear being to appear, as does the ability to recognize fear in other people
- infants displayed no fear at 4 months but experienced a steep increase in expressions of fear such that fear of strangers was clearly in place by 8 months
Anger
- infants rarely express anger as a single emotion
- by their 1st birthday, infants clearly and frequently express anger
- infants displayed moderate anger at 4 months
Surprise
- emotional reaction to a sudden, unexpected event
- most infants being to express surprise by 6 months
Disgust
most children younger than 3-4 do not know the words “disgust” or “disgusting”, but children are able to express feelings of disgust using words to convey something yucky or gross
Sadness
around 18 months
Shame vs. Guilt
- Guilt is associated with empathy for others and involves feelings of remorse and regret about ones behavior, as well as the desire to under the consequences of that behavior
- Shame does not seem to be related to concern about others when children feel shame their focus is on themselves and the acceptance of a personal failure; they feel that they are exposed, and they often feel like hiding
Separation Anxiety
- distress due to separation from the parent who is the chid’s primary caregiver
- 8 months
Stranger Anxiety
- the distress that babies experience when they meet or are left in the care of people who are unfamiliar to them
- often beings around 6-8 months
Identifying Emotions; Young vs. Old
it is easier to identify positive emotions than negative emotions for younger children as opposed to older children
How is Temperament Measured
- infant behavior questionnaire and child behavior questionnaires
- parents teachers or observers indicate how well a range of statements describes the target child
- some components are stable, others are not
Easy Temperament
adjusted readily to new situation, quickly established daily routines such as sleeping and eating, and generally were cheerful in mood and easy to calm
40%
Difficult Temperament
were slow to adjust to new experiences, tended to react negative and intensely to novel stimuli and events, and were irregular in their daily routine and bodily functions
10%
Slow-To-Warm-Up Temperament
were somewhat difficult at first but become easier over time as they had repeated contact with new objects, people, and situations
15%
Parental Reactions
parent’s reactions to their children’s emotions directly influence the children’s own tendencies to express emotions, as well as their social competence and adjustment
Discussion of Emotion
by discussing emotions with their children, parents teach them about the meanings of emotions, the circumstances in which they should and should not be expressed, and the consequences of expressing or not expression them
Identify vs. Understand Emotion
by 3 months babies can identify emotions, by 16-18 months they can understand emotions
Social Smiles
smiles directed towards people
6-7 weeks
Social Referencing
children use of parent’s or older adult’s facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with the situation
8-10 months
Display Rules
social or cultural group’s informal norms about when, where, and how much one should show emotions, as well as when and where displays of emotions should be suppressed or masked by displays of other emotions
Observations of Children in Orphanages
- listless and depressed
- emotionally disturbed
- feelings of emptiness
- lost of interest in life
- unable to develop normal emotional attachments
Internal Working Model
- a mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general
- based on young children’s perceptions of the extent to which their caregivers can be depended on
- believed to influence ones overall adjustment, social behavior, perceptions of others, and the development of their self-esteem and sense of self
Harry Harlow
- separated baby monkeys from mothers after birth
- found that baby monkeys spend most of their time with the comfort mothers
Strang Situation
- studied mother infant interactions during infants’ explorations and separations from their mother
- found 4 different attachment types
Secure Attachment
- infants use their mothers as a secure base at first
- they will play with toys while occasionally checking in on their mother
- they are usually distressed when their mother leaves the room but are easily comforted when she returns
- 50-60%
Insecure/Resistent Attachment
- infants are often clingy, stays close to mother side instead of exploring toys
- gets very upset when their mother leaves, when she return they rebuff her efforts at comforting them
- 9%
Insecure/Avoidant Attachment
- children tend to avoid their mother
- fail to greet her during reunions
- turn away while she’s in the room
- 15%
Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment
- seem to have no way of coping with the stress
- behavior is often confused or contradictory
- 15%
Parental Sensitivity
- responsiveness of caregiver
- most important behavior related to secure attachments
Concept of Self Test
- place mark on child
- expose them to mirror
- before 18 months…do nothing (may try to touch “child” in mirror)
- after 18 months…make movements towards own body, may use mirror for self-exploration
Personal Fable
- overly differentiate their feelings from others
- regard their feelings as unique or special
- their egocentric may explain why teens are preoccupied with what others think of them
Erikson’s Theory of Identity Formation
- Identity Diffusion - no firm commitments, no plans
- Foreclosure - no experimentation, identity based on choices of others
- Moratorium - exploring, but not committed
- Identity-Achievement - coherent, consolidated identity based on personal choice
