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Anatomy & Physiology 1 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

The nervous system uses electrochemical signals called what?

A

impulses

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2
Q

How are nerve impulses transmitted?

A

via cells called neurons

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3
Q

What other cells do neurons support?

A

glia cells

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4
Q

What are the 3 major regions of a neuron?

A
  • dendrites -> receive signals from other cells
  • soma -> houses organelles
  • axon -> transmits signals AWAY from soma
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5
Q

Dendrites receive what type of potential?

A

graded potentials from sensory receptors/neurons

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6
Q

Axons transmit what type of potential?

A

action potentials that travel from axon hillock to terminals

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7
Q

Which potential can be either excitatory or inhibitory and may not cause a neuron to fire?

A

can be either

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8
Q

What type of potential is always excitatory and can cause a neuron to fire?

A

action potential

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9
Q

What is an afferent neuron?

A
  • rely on sensory receptor activities
  • dendrites lie in PNS
  • transmits signals to synapses in CNS
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10
Q

What is an interneuron?

A
  • limited to CNS
  • integrate & interpret signals
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11
Q

What are efferent neurons?

A
  • send out motor neurons
  • dendrites lie in CNS
  • synapses lie in PNS
  • act on motor (muscles) or chemical effectors (glands)
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12
Q

What are the functions of the astrocytes & satellite cells in neurons?

A
  • transport nutrients & metabolic wastes
  • maintain conc. of chemicals in nervous tissue
  • trigger formation of blood brain barrier
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13
Q

What are the cells of the CNS?

A
  • ependymal
  • astrocytes
  • microglia
  • oligodendrocytes
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14
Q

What are the cells of the PNS?

A

satellite & schwann cells

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15
Q

What is the function of oligodendrocytes?

A
  • insulate axons
  • form processes that surround segments of axons in myelin
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16
Q

What is the function of Schwann cells?

A

each cell wraps around an axon creating a singular myelin sheath

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17
Q

What is the function of microglia?

A
  • derived from macrophages early in development
  • engulf & destroy damaged tissue, cells, & foreign invaders
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18
Q

What is the function of ependymal cells?

A
  • line ventricles & central canal of the CNS
  • works with blood vessels & filter blood plasma to produce CSF
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19
Q

What is a membrane potential?

A

difference in electrical charge across the cell membrane

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20
Q

What type of protein drives potential?

A

transport proteins

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21
Q

What does the NA+/K+ pump drive in & what does it drive out?

A

3 Na+ in & 2 K+ out

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22
Q

What are the 2 types of gradients created by the Na+/K+ pump?

A

conc. & electrical gradients

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23
Q

How can we get from -50mV to -70mV?

A
  • negative cystolic proteins
  • Na+ & K+ leakage channels in the membrane (more effective)
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24
Q

What is the value of resting potential?

A

-70mV

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25
Q

What stimuli CAN trigger a graded potential?

A
  • change in voltage
  • presence of an environmental chemical
  • presence of a neurotransmitter
  • mechanical pressure
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26
Q

What rushes in when a graded potential occurs?

A

Na+

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27
Q

What isthe term to describe a membrane potential being less negative?

A

depolarization

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28
Q

What is a decremental signal?

A

when a signal weakens as it moves farther away

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29
Q

When is a threshold reached?

A

when potential rises to -55mV

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30
Q

What happens when a threshold is reached?

A
  • triggers a series of voltage gated Na+ channels in area near axon hillock
  • cell becomes 600x more permeable to Na+ & K+
  • action potential is formed
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31
Q

What is an overshoot?

A

a balanced membrane potential that continues until 30mV potential is reached

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32
Q

What is repolarization?

A

when the membrane potential is negative

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33
Q

What is hyperpolarization?

A

when the charge passes -70mV

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34
Q

What are the 7 steps of an action potential formation?

A
  1. stimulus causes a graded potential
  2. when threshold is reached (-55mV), Na+ channels open
  3. Na+ floods into cell & depolarizes it
  4. at overshoot (+30mV) Na+ channels are blocked & K+ open
  5. K+ floods out of the cell & repolarizes/hyperpolarizes it
  6. action potential travels down the axon
  7. Ca2+ channels open & enters the cell & neurotransmitter is released
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35
Q

What causes an action potential to travel down an axon?

A

Na+ rushing in causing neighboring channels to open

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36
Q

What is an absolute refractory/downtime period?

A

when Na+ is prevented from passing through while the region repolarizes

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37
Q

What is a relative refractory/downtime period?

A

when it takes more Na+ influx to reach threshold

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38
Q

What speeds up propagation?

A

myelination

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39
Q

What are Nodes of Ranvier?

A

areas b/w myelin

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40
Q

What occurs at the axon terminal?

A

Ca+ floods in

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41
Q

What can the influx of Ca+ in the axon terminal cause?

A
  • triggers depolarization in post-synaptic cells
  • triggers exocytosis of neurotransmitters
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42
Q

What type of gap lies b/w cells?

A

synaptic cleft

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43
Q

What occurs if a neurotransmitter is inhibitory?

A

causes K+ or Cl- to rush into the cell

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44
Q

Endorphins are most likely what?

A

inhibitory neurotransmitter

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45
Q

What are the 2 ways a neurotransmitter can be removed?

A
  • degraded by Ach-terase
  • taken up by neuron that released it (ex:serotonin)
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46
Q

What are the 2 divisions of the nervous system?

A
  • CNS -> brain & spinal cord
  • PNS -> sensory & motors; all other nerves
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47
Q

How does the PNS communicate with the CNS?

A

sends sensory info in & receives motor info out

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48
Q

What type of neuron enters via the dorsal root ganglion?

A

afferent = sensory response

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49
Q

What type of neuron exits ventrally via ventral root ganglion?

A

efferent neuron = motor response

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50
Q

What matter does the CNS have?

A
  • white matter -> composed of myelinated neurons
  • grey matter -> cell bodies & interneurons
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51
Q

What matter transmits signals to/from the brain?

A

white

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52
Q

What is the only nervous system that has NO interneurons and everything is myelinated?

A

PNS

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53
Q

What are the 3 layers of protection of the CNS?

A
  • bone -> skull & vertebrae
  • meninges -> membrane b/w bone & brain
  • cerebrospinal fluid -> provides support & nutrients
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54
Q

What is the order of the layers of the meninges from top to bottom?

A

dura -> arachnoid -> pia

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55
Q

What does dura matter connect to?

A

bone

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56
Q

What is dura matter?

A
  • forms a layer of tough fibrous connective tissue
  • houses venous sinuses for blood return from CNS
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57
Q

What is arachnoid matter?

A
  • avascular layer
  • surrounds subarachnoid space that houses CSF
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58
Q

What does pia matter attach to?

A

brain

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59
Q

What is pia matter?

A
  • lines inside & outside of CNS
  • contains blood vessels that branch from arteries
  • forms plexuses in brain ventricles
  • lies on top of brain & spinal cord
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60
Q

Where does CSF lie?

A

in subarachnoid space b/w arachnoid & pia

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61
Q

What are the 3 functions of CSF?

A
  • transfers nutrients, O2, & waste for the CNS
  • cushions brain & protects it
  • supports brain so it doesn’t rest on bone
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62
Q

Where does CSF travel?

A
  • travels through aqueducts b/w ventricles
  • connects central canal of spinal cord
  • passes into suarachnoid
  • forced into blood of dural sinuses
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63
Q

What type of glial cell forms CSF?

A

ependymal cells

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64
Q

What is the blood- brain barrier?

A
  • barrier b/w vessels traveling around the brain & brain
  • prevents materials from passing
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65
Q

Capillaries are connected by what type of junction in the blood-brain barrier?

A

tight

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66
Q

What cells surround the capillaries in the brain?

A
  • pericytes
  • astrocytes
  • microglia
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67
Q

What is the purpose of the 3 cells surrounding the capillaries in the brain?

A

to prevent pathogens & non-lipid soluble molecules from crossing into the neural tissue

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68
Q

What are the 4 components of the brain?

A
  • cerebrum -> sensory & motor; memory & reasoning
  • diencephalon -> processes & delivers sensory info
  • cerebellum -> movement & balance
  • brainstem -> connects spinal cord to brain
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69
Q

What connects the 2 hemispheres of the cerebrum?

A

ant. & post. commisures -> bundles of axons

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70
Q

What is the name of the thick band of axons traveling through the cerebrum hemispheres?

A

corpus callosum

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71
Q

What part of the brain sets humans apart from other animals?

A

an outer cortex in the cerebrum

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72
Q

What does the cerebrum outer cortex form?

A

forms folds (sulci) & hills (gyri) that increase surface area/volume

73
Q

What cell types does the cerebrum outer cortex form layers with?

A
  • stellate cells -> processes incoming sensory info
  • pyrimidal cells -> send motor signals out
74
Q

What are the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex?

A
  • frontal lobe -> skeletal muscles, decison making, speech, planning
  • parietal lobe -> touch, sensory integration, speech recognition
  • temporal lobe-> hearing, taste, smell
  • occipital lobe -> vison
75
Q

What structures lie deep to the cerebral cortex?

A

nuclei

76
Q

What do the nuclei do beneath the cerebral cortex?

A
  • regulate unconcsious processes (aggression, fear, memory)
  • combine with regions of diencephalon to form limbic system
77
Q

What region in the cerebral cortex controls movement?

A

substantia nigra

78
Q

What region of the brain forms a relay station?

A

diencephalon

79
Q

What are the thalamus & hypothalamus?

A
  • thalamus -> routes all signals to cerebrum
  • hypothalamus -> main homestatic setpoint
80
Q

What are examples of homeostatic processes that the hypothalamus controls?

A
  • HR & BP
  • body temp.
  • hunger
  • water balance
  • regulates endocrine system
81
Q

What is the cerebellum?

A
  • maintains muscle tone
  • sends out corrective signals to maintain balance
  • muscle memory
  • coordinates activites of skeletal muscles
82
Q

What are the 3 parts of the brainstem?

A
  • midbrain -> connects cerebrum to spinal cord
  • pons -> connects cerebrum & cerebellum
  • medualla oblongata -> HR, breathing, visual/auditory
83
Q

What si the medulla oblongata largely directed to?

A

reticular formation

84
Q

How does the white matter carry signals to/from the brain?

A
  • ascending tracts (goes up)-> sensory
  • descending tracts (goes down)-> motor
  • dorsal columns -> ONLY sensory axons
  • lateral & ventral columns -> BOTH motor & sensory
85
Q

How does the grey matter communicate with the PNS?

A
  • dorsal horn -> receives sensory from spinal nerves
  • ventral horn -> carries motor info out
86
Q

What type of neruons does the dorsal horn have?

A

interneuerons & sensory neurons

87
Q

What type of neruons does the ventral horn have?

A

dendrites & soma of motor neurons

88
Q

What are the 2 major divisions of the PNS?

A
  • afferent -> carries sensory impulses to CNS
  • efferent -> motor senses
89
Q

What are the 2 divisions of the afferent division in the PNS?

A

somatic sensory & visceral sensory

90
Q

What are the general & special divisions in the afferent PNS?

A
  • general -> touch, pain, pressure, vibration, temp.
  • special -> hearing, vision, equil., taste, smell
91
Q

What are the 2 divisions of the efferent division in the PNS?

A
  • somatic nervous -> motor inn. of skeletal muscles
  • autonomic -> motor inn. of smooth & cardiac muscles, & glands
92
Q

What are the characteristics of parasympathetic nerves?

A
  • constrict pupils
  • slow HR
  • constrict airways
  • contract bladder
  • inhibit release of glucose
93
Q

What are the characteristics of sympathetic nerves?

A
  • dilate pupils
  • fast HR
  • relax airways
  • relax bladder
  • release of glucose to make ATP
94
Q

What are the 2 types of nerves in the PNS?

A
  • cranial -> connect directly to brain
  • spinal -> pass through spinal cord
95
Q

What are the 4 plexuses that form from spinal nerves?

A
  • cervical -> inn. neck & head
  • brachial -> inn. arms
  • lumbar -> inn. pelvis & ant. leg
  • sacral -> inn. rest of leg
96
Q

What are neurons called when organized into groups?

A

fascicles surrounded by perineurium

97
Q

What surrounds a neuron?

A

layer of connective endoneurium

98
Q

What is an entire nerve wrapped in?

A

epineurium

99
Q

What are the 2 branches of the spinal nerve?

A
  • dorsal -> sensory/afferent neurons
  • ventral -> motor/ efferent neurons
100
Q

What type of ganglia is acosciated with parasympathetic signals?

A

terminal

101
Q

What type of ganglia is associated with thoracic & upper lumbar regions?

A

sympathetic

102
Q

Where does the temrinal ganglia receive input from?

A

cranial nerves & lumbosacral plexus

103
Q

What happens when ion channels open in dendrites?

A

increased stimulus activity

104
Q

What density affects perception?

A

neuron density

105
Q

What is acuity?

A

affects our ability to localize the signal

106
Q

Do stimuli near the center or the edge of the receptor field generate greater responses?

A

stimuli near the center

107
Q

What are phasic receptors?

A
  • exhibit on/off response
  • adapt rapidly & only respond when stimulus is applied/removed
108
Q

What are tonic receptors?

A

respond for the duration of a stimulus (ex: stretch in muscles)

109
Q

What is the ascending pathway?

A
  1. 1st order neurons receive receptor stimuli
  2. 1st neuron synapse with 2nd neuron in spinal cord/ medulla oblongota
  3. 2nd neuron travel to thalamus to synapse with 3rd order neuron
  4. 3rd order neuron travels into cerebral cortex
110
Q

What receptors are associated with general senses?

A
  • thermo
  • mechano
  • nociceptor
111
Q

What receptors are associated with special senses?

A
  • chemo
  • mechano
  • photo
112
Q

What are thermoreceptors?

A
  • change in temp triggers Ca2+ channels to open
  • group of specialized nerve endings
  • found in skin & internally
113
Q

What chemicals lower the resting potential of a receptor?

A
  • capsaicin
  • ethanol
  • menthol
114
Q

What are pain receptors?

A
  • highly conc. in the skin
  • damage to tissue causes Ca2+ channels to open
115
Q

What releases endorphins?

A

medulla oblongota

116
Q

Taste buds house what type of cells?

A

epithelial

117
Q

Taste buds sends signals to what nerves?

A

facial, vagus, & glossopharyngeal

118
Q

What are the 5 receptors in taste buds?

A
  • bitter (alkaloids)
  • sour (H+)
  • salty (cations)
  • umami (L-glutamate)
  • sweet (simple sugars)
119
Q

How does smell work?

A
  • odorants are inhaled & dissolved in mucus
  • bind to cilia on dendrites of olfactory cells
  • receptor cells depolarize & sends signal through olfactory bulb to the brain
120
Q

What are the 3 places smell go once in the brain?

A
  • piriform cortex in temporal lobe
  • secondary olfactroy in frontal lobe
  • amygdala in diencephalon/cortex
121
Q

How are soundwaves funneled from the environment?

A

by the pinna (outer ear) -> ext. acoustic meatus -> ear canal -> tympanic membrane (eardrum)

122
Q

The tympanic membrane vibrates to what 3 bones of the middle ear?

A
  • malleus
  • incus
  • stapes
123
Q

What is the movement of sound in the middle ear?

A
  • malleus attaches to eardrum which vibrates
  • incus vibrates
  • stapes vibrates which attaches to oval window
124
Q

What separates the middle & inner ear?

A

oval window

125
Q

What 2 muscles in the middle ear modify the vibrations?

A
  • tensor tympani -> controls malleus; dampens loud sounds
  • stapedius -> controls stapes
126
Q

How is sound amplified in the ear?

A

pinna -> funnel that focuses sound to tympanum

127
Q

What is the full path of sound travelling through the ear?

A
  • outer ear: pinna -> auditory canal -> tympanic membrane
  • middle ear: malleus -> incus -> stapes
  • inner ear: oval window -> cochlea -> temporal lobe
128
Q

How do vibrations travel through the cochlea?

A
  1. vibrations enter cochlea & travel along vestibular duct
  2. transfers energy to cochlear duct
  3. causes basilar membrane to vibrate
129
Q

What happens in the organ or corti?

A
  • the hair cells get bent & sends a signal to the brain
  • the more frequent the vibration = the louder the sound = more action potentials
130
Q

What hair cell in the inner ear is associated with equilibrium?

A

vestibule

131
Q

What is static equilibrium?

A

up & down or forward & backward movement

132
Q

What are the 2 structures involved with static equilibrium?

A

saccule (vertical movment) & utricle (forward/backward movement)

133
Q

What is dynamic equilibrium?

A

angular motion using semicircular canals (ex: feeling dizzy being drunk)

134
Q

The endocrine system is under control of what other system?

A

nervous system

135
Q

What are the characteristics of the endocrine system?

A
  • involves hormones
  • hormones transported by blood
  • slow
  • short or long lived responses
  • involuntary
  • affect more than one organ
136
Q

Endocrine glands are what type of cells?

A

epithelial

137
Q

What are the characteristics of epithelial glands?

A
  • produce/secrete hormones
  • released into blood
  • stimulated by neurons/hormones
138
Q

Hormones are derived from what 2 things?

A

lipids or amino acids

139
Q

Steroid hormones have what type of solubility?

A

lipid

140
Q

Protein hormones have what type of solubility?

A

water

141
Q

How does signal transduction occur in protein hormones?

A
  1. bind to a receptor on the surface of the cell
  2. receptor changes shape & activates something inside
142
Q

Which hormone is faster, stronger, & shorter acting than the other?

A

protein hormones > steroid hormones

143
Q

What are the 7 types of endocrine glands?

A
  • brain -> pituitary & pineal
  • throat -> parathyroid & thyroid
  • abdomen -> adrenal & pancreas
  • gonads -> ovaries & testes
144
Q

What is the neurohypophysis in the pituitary gland?

A
  • organ that forms from the diencephalon
  • grows from infundibulum & swells
  • comosed of neurosecretory cells
145
Q

What is the adenohypophysis in the pituitary gland?

A
  • organ that forms from the pharynx
  • wraps around infundibulum
  • composed of glandular epithelium
146
Q

What is the antidiuretic hormone?

A
  • akavasopressin
  • affects blood volume
  • constricts blood vessels to increase BP
  • increases water absorption
147
Q

What is the oxytocin hormone?

A
  • promotes uterine contraction in childbirth
  • triggers ejaculation
  • promotes lactation
  • associated with pair bonding (love & affection)
148
Q

What is the hypophyseal portal system?

A

capillaries in the infundibulum where regulatory hormones from the hypothalamus can enter

149
Q

What organ controls adenohypophysis activity?

A

hypothalamus

150
Q

What are tropic hormones?

A

hormones that have a cascading effect on other endocrine glands

151
Q

What are the tropic hormones of the adenohypophysis in the anterior pituitary?

A
  • FSH & LH -> gonads
  • growth hormone -> liver, organs & tissues
  • TSH -> thyroid
  • ACTH -> adrenal cortex
152
Q

What is the non-tropic hormone?

A

prolactin : triggers milk production and breast development

153
Q

Whata re growth hormones?

A
  • increase protein synthesis
  • promotes lipolysis & gluconeogenesis
  • reduces uptake of glucose by liver
  • acts on liver to produce IGF-1
154
Q

The pineal gland have what type of cells?

A

photoreactive cells

155
Q

What are follicular cells?

A
  • produce T3/T4
  • regulated by thyroid hormone
156
Q

What does T3 in the thyroid affect?

A
  • HR
  • temp.
  • metabolism -> increases activity of proteins & abundance of free fatty acids
157
Q

What is hyperthyroidism?

A
  • overproduction of T3/T4
  • weight loss & high metabolism
  • common cause: Grave’s disease
158
Q

What is calcitonin?

A
  • produced by thyroid
  • acts on kidneys, bones, & digestive tract
  • prevents Ca2+ resorption
  • downregulates osteoclasts & activates osteoblasts
159
Q

What is the parathyroid hormone?

A
  • upregulates osteoclasts
  • promosyes Ca2+ resorption
  • triggers Vit D activation
160
Q

What are the 2 parts of the pancreas?

A
  • exocrine -> controls digestion in intestine with enzymes produced by acinar cells
  • endocrine -> forms islets of langerhans
161
Q

What are the 4 cell types of the islets?

A
  • alpha -> produce glucagon
  • beta -> produce insulin
  • gamma -> produce pancreatic polypeptide
  • delta -> produce somatostatin
162
Q

What is type 1 diabetes?

A

autoimmune system destroys beta cells in pancreas and no can longer produce insulin

163
Q

What is type 2 diabetes?

A

pancreas can make insulin, but body is insensitive to insulin; decreases insulin receptors

164
Q

What are the 2 regions of the adrenal glands?

A

outer cortex & inner medulla

165
Q

What are the functions of the inner medulla?

A
  • has sympathetic neurons
  • produce epinephrine & norepinephrine
  • long lived sympathetic activity
  • increase HR, blood glucose, dilate blood vessels
166
Q

What are glucocorticoids?

A
  • made by adrenal gland
  • regulated by ACTH
  • promotes glucose synthesis
  • suppresses immune system & blocks inflammation
167
Q

What are mineralcorticoids?

A
  • made by adrenal gland
  • affect sodium
  • regulated by ACTH
  • release stimulated by renin & angiotensin
168
Q

What are androgens?

A
  • made by adrenal gland
  • testosterone & estrogen
169
Q

What provides mucous for the eye?

A

conjunctiva

170
Q

What makes the outer layer of the eye?

A
  • cornea -> transparent window of the eye
  • sclera -> white part of eye & reflects light
  • optic nerve -> pierce sclera in the back
171
Q

What makes the middle layer of the eye?

A
  • choroid coat -> contains pigments & blood vessels
  • ciliary body -> adjusts lens of the eye
  • iris -> smooth muscle that adjusts the amount of light into the eye with pupil; eye color
172
Q

What does accomodation mean with the eye?

A

when the ciliary body sharpens the image a received by photoreceptors

173
Q

What makes the inner layer of the eye?

A

retina -> photoreceptor cells of eye; continuous with optic nerve; “blindspot”

174
Q

What are rod shaped photoreceptors?

A
  • long & thin
  • respond to any light
  • DO NOT transmit color info (scotopic vision - black & white vision)
175
Q

What are cone shaped photoreceptors?

A
  • short
  • give color vision (photopic)
176
Q

What are the 3 different types of cones?

A
  • blue (cyanolabe) -> max 420 nm
  • green (chlorolabe) -> max 530 nm
  • red (erythrolabe) -> max 560nm
177
Q

Rods in the eye contain what type of pigment?

A

rhodopsin

178
Q

Where are the cones in the eye found?

A

fovea centralis

179
Q

What is the pathway of light?

A
  1. light passes through the cornea
  2. passes through pupil
  3. hits lens
  4. lens focus light onto retina

Anatomy & Physiology 1 (1 decks)

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