Exam #3 Flashcards
What is pluralism?
Not being corporated in decision making.
Pressure &bargaining through strikes & threats of economic sanctions.
Described more as conflict rather than a consensus system
What is corporatism?
Being incorporated into the decision making
Ex: Austria, Norway, Sweden
What does Sweden have (corporate or pluralism)?
Coexistence of corporatism with a strong parliament
What is Brian (pluralism or corporatism)?
Trade unions have free collective bargaining through the “ right to strike”
No integration of unions & management into politics & even less so since 1979
What is federalism?
Existence of central govt
Sovereignty is divided & shares between central govt & member states
What is the notion of constitutional entrenchment?
Equality between substrates
What are examples of federation countries?
Germany, Austria, Switzerland
What are examples of unitary countries?
Great Britain and spain
What is confederalism?
A system where the units rather than the central authority function as the decisive force.
Institutional diplomacy instead of federal govt
What is Switzerland power of cantons?
Administration of welfare state
Setting local taxes
Constitutional auto only
Any feature power is 1st given to the cantons
What is the lower house?
National council
What is the upper house?
Council of state
What is Germany regional Automomies?
Importance of notion state in early 1900
Development in the 1960s for stateless nations & resulting minority nationalism
➡️change in understanding of concept of democracy
➡️Declining importance of class politics, rise of post-material issues
What is Bundestag?
Parliament
What is Bundestag?
Upperhouse
Why is the UK not federal country?
Existence of central govt
Sovereignty is divided & shared between central
Notion of constitutional entrenchment
Equality between substates
NO cpnstitutional entrenchment
NO equality between substates
What are the major regions in UK?
Northern Ireland, Scotland, wales
What is happening in northern Ireland?
Disputes between protestant “unionists” vs Catholic “nationalist”.
Irish Republican Army’s terrorist attack
1998 Good Friday agreement violence has great extent disappeared
What is the good Friday agreement?
Acknowledging both fractions as legitimate.
Will of people will be respected
N. Ireland assembly established that is responsible of issues like edu, healthcare, social services,etc
What is going on in Wales?
Weak powers, no law making powers until 2011 referendum
Voted in favor of Welsh assembly to make laws in 20 subject areas
(Edu, healthcare, economic)
Result respected by UK
What is the Scottish nationalism?
Responsible for law making.
Reserved matters for UK parliament such as constitutional changes, international relations, &defense, currency,etc
Where did the idea for referendum come from?
2011 election results
Scottish national party
What was the outcome of referendum?
Iposos Mori: yes 49% no 51%
YouGov: yes 48% no 52%
What was the result of the referendum (Scottish)?
They voted no.
EU wasn’t say if they will be welcomed in open arms if they become independent
Uncertainty in passport, EU, currency NATO
Scott’s wanted to leave but not majority
What happend since the referendum outcome?
Brexit & Scottish independence
Feb2023: resignation of Nicola Sturgeon.
March 2023: 3 candidate election through party membership vote.Humzq yousaf elected leader
Why is Spain not a federal country?
They have existence of central govt
Sovereignty is divided & shared between central govt & member states
The notion of constitutional entrenchment
Does NOT have equality between substates
What is Spain ?
Differentiated or asymmetric federalism
Basque, Catalonia, Valencia have considerably more power than other regions
What is happening with Basque?
It’s nationalism & ETA
2010 cease fire
2011 permanent cease fire
2014 Feb: ETA handed over weapons & bombs
What is happening with Catalonia?
Considered nationalism.
Economically strongest region
Integrated well w/ rest of Europe
Why would Catalonia want to separate?
Independence movement have been existence since 1920 but gained popular support over the past 10-20 yrs
2014 Nov: non binding referendum
What happened ahead of the Catalonia elections?
Pro independence parties said to hold a referendum
Was approved by Catalonia parliament (2016)
Spanish constitution doesn’t allow it, and SC declared vote illegal
What has happened since the Catalonia referendum?
Catalonia parliament not allowed to meet
Article 155: Spanish constitution allow Spanish govt to take over everything. Catalonia govt was dismissed &direct rule.
Pro independence parties gained the control of parliament once again but w/ small majority
Where are we (Catalonia)?
2012: start process toward independence
Unofficial referendum claim more than 90% support independence
What is happening in Belgium?
Walloon= French speaking in south
Flemish= dutch speaking in north
Brussel (Capital) in north but mainly speak French
What holds the Belgium together?
Taxation
Monarchy
Location of Brussels in Dutch parts
Sports
What happened in 2010 in Belgium?
Election gave huge power to separatists & no coalition was able to form for almost 2 yrs
Formed after tough negotiation
N-Va gained plurality of seats
What is the France and Corsica issue?
France knows giving Corsica more autonomy will not be w/out consequences
France on tight rope. Will go back to commitment on autonomy & risk escalating the situation or adhere to it’s promise & risk future of French nation
What is separatism?
Commonalities of most of these separatists movement
Economic power reasons
What are the consequences of independence for the separating region vs the country they separate from?
Unknown that come into play will bring more issues
They will break the EU legitimize & can cause unforseen problems
Myths of still being rich once out is not certain
Why would some do separatism?
Might feel like the govt isnt doing enough so they want independence
Culture & language barriers then of course they would want to be independent
Some don’t want independence but just more autonomy
What is local government?
Basic level of local govt: municipality
Provinces between municipality & central govt
Difference between previous cases of regional Automomies vs unitary states
What are the roles of local govt?
Local autonomy varies depending on how much money they can raise & whether there are direct elections.
Role:
Land use planning, environmental control
Certain local services like garbage collection, fire protection, police local transportation
The school system, personal healthcare, public housing
What is the EU?
27 member states
446 mil combined pop of EU Member States
24 official languages
What is international orgs?
Bodies that promote voluntary cooperation & coordination between or among their members.
Does NOT have Automomies power nor authority to impose their ruling on their members
(Intergov org & international nongovt org)
What is international nongovt org?
Individuals or private orgs rather than states, govt, more interest groups to share & do research
What is intergovernmental org?
Can negotiate share information on voluntary basis
Is EU a Regional integration org?
Yes.
Involves some loss of sovereignty
Have evolved over so many issues areas it not just corporation issue things.
What are features of a federal policy in EU?
Equal powers among countries
Decision making power is divided between the EU & the component states
Directly elected European Parliament
A common budget
A common executive body
A president/ foreign secretary
A common currency
What is limitations in federal policy in EU?
Sovereignty limited
No constitutional entrenchment
Military power is controlled by individual nations
What is confederalism?
System where the units rather than the central authority functions as the decisive force
Institutional diplomacy instead of federal govt
What are features of EU as Confederal system?
Member states are sovereign & independent
No EU govt per SE
Only European Parliament is directly elected
Everything else indirectly represented by national govt or people selected by them
EU flag & anthem but people feel alliance w/ own flag and anthem
Military & foreign relations are controlled by central govt.
EU does NOT control any of that
What is functionalism?
Moves from self interest to concerns about common interest
Integration grew out of non political pressures to cooperate
What did Haas recognize in 1958?
Functional integration was taking place in Europe but functionalism as a theory had failed to explain why decision makers chose to integrate in some areas & not others
What is neo functionalism?
Taking functionalism perspective on integration further.
Importance of non state actors & supernatural interest groups & their socialization
What is the spill over process?
Lindberg: given action related to specific goal, creates a situation in which original goal can be assured only by taking further actions which turn create further condition & need for more action
What is the stages in regional integration?
1)2 or more states create free trade among themselves
2) growth of internal free trade leads to adoption of common external tariff
3) reduction in internal trading expands size of market so sectors want to expand their operations throughout custom union
4)people move freely, pressure grows for coordinated policies on more national issues like edu, healthcare,
5) demands of economic integration lead to growing political integration
What are the critiques of neo functionalism?
Slow progress of political integration
Argument of possible spill back ( reaction against integration measures resulting in setbacks)
Arguments about elite socialization being wrong.
(National interest is still important)
What are the waves?
Revival of neo functionalism
Result of important developments towards a more integrated Europe
Criticism in 2000&2010s w/ rise of anti EU parties/ sentiment & Brexit
What is intergovermentalism?
Reaction to federalist & neo functionalism theories
Integration functions as 0 sum game
Cost & benefits associated w/ integration & only if benefits surpass costs, countries decided to “cooperate”
What is a critique to intergovermentalism?
Too simple
What is intergovermentalism today?
Incorporating realists & liberalism theories
Moravcsik leading figure
Assumption of rational state behavior
“ Both demand for cooperation…& Supply of integration are important in understanding European integration.
What are critiques to intergovermentalism today?
Explains historic decisions but not much of day to day routine decisions
Underestimates roles of key policy makers
Where does the EU stand at the intergovernmental?
In major areas decisions are still at national level done by the states acting individually in their self interest.
All major decisions on general direction & priorities of EU happens at European Council.
Where does the EU stand in supranational (neo functionalism)?
Commission (govt of EU) decides on EU policy agenda
Influence the European Parliament on decision making is increasing.
Many EU decisions & regulations supersede national law
What is overall criticism for the old theories?
Fail to explain what happens in EU, especially with day to day business
Too restricted with IR theory
What is social constructivism theory?
Interest are socially constructed rather than pre given
Human interactions & socialization create institutions & structures
Social construction, identities, rules and norms are important in shaping EU
Focus on development of European ID through internalization of norms & help of discourse.
Why is there European integration?
Reconstruct German economy but at same time contain it’s power
European economic reconstruct
Economic alliance & interdependence to ensure peace
Threat of Soviet domination
What was the European Coal & steel community (ECSC)?
6 founding States decided to share & co manage coal & steel
Decided to share & co manage other policy area & build economy union
Created European Economic Community (EEC)
What happened during 1960,70,90 w/ ECSC?
Countries trying to integrate further to fight against economic crisis and political enemies, but not willing to give up sovereignty.
What was the treaty of Maastricht?
Established the European union
What are some important developments?
1985: Schengen agreement
1997: Amsterdam treaty ( incorporated Schengen into EU)
Jan 31 2020: brexit
Today: EU responsible for many issues, policy areas ranging agriculture, environment, economic, immigration, ECT
Issue areas where EU has policy decision making sovereignty/ responsibility.
EU law comes first
What happened in 1957 with the EU?
Expansion from the founding members.
Germany, Italy, Luxemburg, France, netherlands
Did Churchill support integration?
Yes but was concerned about too much federalist powers of EC
Why did Britain stay out of the EC in 1950?
Less effected from WW2
Stronger relationship w/ common wealth countries & US
Little production of coal& steel
New labour govt nationalized the coal & steel industry & did not want to share sovereignty
Concern about losing sovereignty
Britain applied for membership in 1961, why?
Economic & political isolation
Europe was doing well
What is the accession process for Britain?
Application rejected by French president De Gaulle
Second app, but De Gaulle again reserved the judgement
De Gaulle resignation, entry negotiation begin in June 1970& ended in 1971
What happend to other applicants?
Norway: narrow majority voted against enlargement
Denmark: voted yes
1973- EC became 9 member org
(Denmark, Ireland, UK)
1981- Greece
1986- Portugal and Spain
What are the conditions for membership?
Called treaty of European union
Any European state respect the principles set out in Article 6 may apply to become member of Union
What is article 6 TEU?
Union founded on principles of liberty democracy respect for human rights & fundamental freedoms & rule of law principles which are common to member states
Shall respect fundamental rights
Shall respect national ID of member states
What is the road to accession?
The Copenhagen criteria
What was the Copenhagen criteria?
Democracy rule of law human rights respect and protection of minorities
Functioning market economy
Adherence to aim of political economic & monetary union
What are the steps to fill membership?
Apply
Satisfied TEU conditions & Copenhagen Criteria- candidate status can be granted
Accession negotiations start
Complete various chapters- Approval of commission needed to open & close each chapter
accession treaty must be approved unanimously in council, approve w/ European Parliament consent, all members parliament and candidate country must ratify
Who joined in 1995
Austria Finland sweden
Who joined in 2004
Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta Poland Slovakia slovenia
What was the 2nd wave of the 4th enlargement wave?
Bulgarian& Romania joined EU
What were some issues from the 2nd wave of the 4th enlargement?
Amnesty international report
Widespread fraud, corruption, organized crime
Weak economies
What was the expansion potential gains for existing EU countries?
Export potential
Foreign investment
More diverse European labor market
Extension of the zone of peace, stability and prosperity
What are the concerns of EU membership countries?
Extra budgetary cost for EU
Social concerns from increased labor migration
Concerns about organized crime & illegal immigration from Russia, Belarus & Ukraine & from Middle East through weak eastern borders
Weak democracies & economies
Why was referendum called (Brexit)?
Cameron’s official call for in out referendum
What is the national situation (brexit)?
Conservative liberal democrat coalition govt
Polls in 2012
Division w/ in party
What was the campaign for brexit?
Stay campaign: Cameron labour party SNP, LibDem
Leave campaign: former London mayor, conservative politician Boris Johnson, UKIO
What was the result of the referendum?
All polls were close w/ slight advantage to remain
Why did people vote for leave?
Opportunity to stick it to political establishment
Immigration & rise of anti immigration sentiment
Winner & losers of globalization
What is the exit procedure?
Referendum was only advisory
Article 50:
Member state may decide to leave accordance w/ it’s own constitutional requirements
Member States shall negotiate and come to agreement w/ state
Conclude on behalf of the union after obtaining consent
What happened after May hard exit in 2017?
W/drawl from single market & replacing it w/ comprehensive free trade agreement
New customs agreement
End of free movement of people
End to European court of justice jurisdiction
Continued cooperation in crime & terrorism collaboration in areas of science & technology, preserving existing worker rights
March 2017: article 50 triggered set the clock to leave EU
What is snap election?
An early election.
Why did Theresa May call for a snap election?
To get the majority while she was ahead but she lost
What happened after the election?
Dec2019: w/ parliamentary majority the w/ drawl agreement passed
UK left the EU on Jan 31 2020 & entered on an 11 month transition
What was the transition period for UK like?
UK effectively remains in EU customs union & single market & obey to EU rules
No longer part of political institutions
Negotiating trade deal if they can leave everything & have a trade deal if can’t agree export tariffs on UK products
Dec24 2020: both parties announced deal had been reached
What is the northern Ireland protocol & Windsor framework?
Goods are checked at ports in N. Ireland on arrival
They can be removed into Republic of Ireland once checked
UK plane: goods split in 2 lines
Goods split into green lane and not checked
Goods destined for Iceland & EU go to Red lane & checked to be carried out
What are the European institutions?
European council
Executive commission
Legislation council of ministers & European Parliament
What is the council of ministers?
Co legislation w/ the European Parliament.
Similar to US Senate
-champion of national interest
-national govt ministers
-has different council of ministers depending on issue
What is the councils in the council of ministers?
10 different configuration
Each deals w/ different functional area
Each composed of relevant ministers from member states
Pres. Of each council is minister of that specific configuration
Irregular meeting means 3 configurations
What are configurations?
General affairs
Foreign affairs
Economic & financial affairs
(Environment, transportation, agriculture, edu, employment,etc)
What is the European commissions?
Pres. & 26 commissioners from each member state working on various issues
-takes oath
-each has portfolio from president
-combination of executive &legislative
(Power of initiation of laws, implementation of laws,& manage EU finances)
What are the 2 councils in EU?
Council of ministers
European council
-assembly of EU member head of government
-responsible for providing direction& determining priorities
What are the roles over in the European council?
Evolution of the EU
Constitutional & institutional matters
Economic & monetary policies of the EU
Enlargements
Specific internal policy issues
What is the president of the EU?
Country changes hands every 6 month.
Exact roles not defined
Nominated by European council, appointed by European Parliament.
Similar to PM of EU
What is the European court of justice?
Similar to US Supreme Court but…
-US SC bases rulings on judicial review
-eu has no constitution
-ECJ bases ruling in existing treaties & laws
-not life time (6yr term)
What are the ECJ powers?
Ruling on the constitutionality of all EU law
Ruling on conformity w/ treaties
Giving rulings to national courts
Ruling in disputes involving EU institution, member states, individuals, operations
What is the European Parliament?
Similar to legislator of EU
-directly elected
- system of committees
-hand in adopting new European law
BUT….
Can’t introduce proposals of new law
Can’t pass laws alone
Can’t raise revenues
It’s a co legislature w/ council
ONLY ELECTED INTERNATIONAL ASSMEBLY IN THE WORLD!
How does the European Parliament work?
Power of legislation, budget, & over the other institutions
What is the European elections?
Direct elections
Once every 5 yrs, may or may not coincide w/national elections
Usually separate campaigns
What is the structure MEPs?
Before they were elected member of national parliament
Power work grew, weakening of link& greater independence & credibility of MEPs
Usually runs w/party in home campaign
Once elected run independently
8k euros
Granted privileges& immunity
Mostly white, men& women of urban background
Candidates improved as increasing power of EP
Once elected join MEPs from other parties
Necessary & elected candidate qualities differ between countries
What are the 2 European election theories?
Second order model
European matters model
What is second order model?
EP election, regional local elections, elections for the ceremonial head of state (president).
What is the empirical evidence for second order?
Lower turnout at the European elections
What is the evidence for second order model?
Lower turnout at European elections
Larger parties will do worse- smaller parties will do better
-(voting w heart rather than w head. National governing parties will suffer losses)
They will suffer losses in orderly fashion
What is the alternative model?
People evaluate: EU performance in their vote choices
Anita EU movements are gaining votes
Single issues parties w EU focus are doing better in EU election compared to national elections
Failing turnout goes hand in hand w declining support if European integration
What is the observational equivalence problem?
Level of vote switching may indicate either a second order effect or European effect
Government parties lose but is it bc of national or European reasons?
Usually national reasons
What was the conclusion of His & marsh ( second order model and Europe matter model)?
Large parties lose
Large governing parties lose
Anti EU parties perform better
Green parties also perform better
European elections not strictly second order elections
BUT they are not European election either
What is democratic deficit?
Increase executive power & decreased national parliamentary control
No European election
Policy drift
Reaching decisions w out always referring to their elections
Council of ministers & permanent representatives in Brussels are secretive
ECJ- no direct say in appointments to the court
European Parliament is too weak
What are the critics on these theories?
EU policy making should be isolated from standard process of democratic politics
Problem is less democratic deficit than a credibility crisis or legitimacy deficit
What is the solution to the critics on these theories?
Procedural rather than fundamental
More transparent decision making
Why do we need competitive elections?
Guarantee that policies & elected officials respond to the preferences of citizens
Essential vehicle for fostering political debate which in turn helps the formation of public opinion
Elections have powerful formative effect, promoting the gradual evolution of political identities
What is the history of immigration?
Immigration from colonies
Guest workers (gast arbiter)
Post Schengen era
What is guest worker
Migrant workers come to Europe& especially to West Germany
Later to Netherlands, Austria on mutual agreements
Why did guest work program start?
Need for economic reconstruction
Lack of workers that would work for less
What is the Schengen agreement?
Signed by 5 of the 10 EU members states
Ireland and UK opted out
Became part of EU law w Amsterdam treaty
Bulgarian Romania and Cyprus are not part of agreement given their problematic status w their borders & corruption
What is the Arab spring?
Massive refuge flow
Italy gave them temporary residence permits France & Denmark closed their borders
2 reforms: new EU based on Schengen evaluation
Adopting common rules for temporary re imposition of checks at internal borders in exceptional cases
What has happened since 2016?
Agreement w Turkey
Extra budget to take care of refugees in EU countries & non EU countries
Increase capacity to carry out search & rescue operations in the Mediterranean
New border& coast guard
What is integration
Process by which immigrants become accepted into society both as individuals and as groups
What is assimilation
Process of adapting the language and culture of a dominant social group or nation or the state of being socially integrated into the culture
What is multiculturalism?
Managing the consequences of cultural diversity in the interest of the individual & society as a whole
What is multiculturalism is Europe?
Multiculturalism in Germany failed due to guest workers
Followed by David Cameron in Britain a few weeks later by Sarkozy in France a few months later
What is the solution to integration?
Practice in the Netherlands and beyond
New policies in Netherlands in 2000 2010
Creation of civic integration programs including compulsory
Dutch language
Already settled immigrants have oral & written fluency
Immigrants responsible to pay these language courses
Foreigners must pass civic integration courses
Etc
What happened with cold war?
Led to quite successful integration project to fight common enemy
What happened after cold war?
Protecting and projecting liberal democratic values
- democratic peace theory
Move away from military power & extensive defense
Focus on societal stability & good political structures
What is the European security and defense policy?
Maastricht treaty
Safe guard common values fundamental interest independence integrity
Strengthen security of union
Pressure peace and international security
Promote international cooperation
Develop & consolidate democracy & rule of law
What is the weakness of the European security and defense?
Union must have capacity for autonomous action
Readiness to respond international crisis w out prejudice action by NATO.
What is bilateral agreement?
Bilateral agreement between Britain and France in 1998 help make progress in discussion on common European security & defense policy
What is the division of Europe?
States w extensive relations outside EU
State less extensive external relations & which tend to work through EU
States w less extensive external organizations such as UN NATO
What is the Iraq war?
Germany side increasingly regards American position to attempt to weaken EU
German newspaper saying US using Iraq to weaken European foreign and security policy
What is going on with Libya?
Extraordinary European council organized and led to rejection of military intervention
Showed reluctance to join.
NATO operated in Libya and once Gaddafi died operation ended
What is happened in Syria?
EU force draft Association agreement had been negotiated w Syria & suspended bilateral cooperation programs between EU & Syrian govt
What happened in 2013 in Syria?
Sanctions
- prohibition on impact of arms & related material from Syria
- important ban of oil & petroleum products
-hand investment in Syria oil industry in companies engaged in construction of new power plants for electricity
Syrian Bank w in EU frozen & prohibited to make funds or economic resources available
Cargo flights carriers & all flights may not have access to EU airports
What is the EU role in Syria?
EU foreign policy has resulted in complete lack of European influence on developments
EU unable to craft effective well coordinated policy may see it’s role limited to humanitarian actions
What are the problems with EU ?
Countries still have their own foreign policy stance
There is no enforcement mechanism or forces of the EU that act in unison variety of military powers
How did the crisis in Ukraine start in 2010?
Pres. Yanukovich going against EU & getting bailout from Russia
Massive protest in 2013
Petro proshenko elected as new pres.
EU association agreement
War in Donbas region
Russia invaded urkaine
Ukraine became official candidate of EU
European commission president announced that the membership process will process
What was Paul hockens fp article?
EU officials are betting that by anchoring eastern European as well as western Balkans. They more solidly in EU and can lift them out .
Best way to expand European peace and prosperity is to lock all liberal institutions and structures of democratic Europe.
Argument: backlash on lack of promise execution
What is EU vs Russia?
Too complicated
Sanctions toward Russia and Ukraine invasion but too big of trading partner to fully sanction
Energy dependency on Russia
2016: MEPs voted on non legislative resolution.
More sanctions following Feb 2022 invasion
What is Judy Dempsey white paper published on Carnegie Europe series?
The blaming game will come as the issue with Ukraine shows the weakness of EU.
What’s the Israel Palestine nrp article?
These are hate marches
Scotland wants them to cease fire
France has both oppositions
(Wants Hamas terrorism to stop but wants humanitarian truce to get aid for Palestine.)
What was the debate on niche/ mainstream parties(pro accommodative)?
Media pressure & institutionalised debate can make niche issues nearly unavoidable.
Ownership of niche issue can provide less radical solutions that could include ideologies of more voters.
Why adverial/dismissive worse? The salience of an issue increase as mainstream party acknowledges the legitimacy of issue and signals prioritization of policy dimension for electoral completion
What was the debate on niche/ mainstream parties(cons accommodative)?
Accommodative strategy hurts mainstream party:
Mainstream party shift towards niche party position
Increased issue salience may alienate more moderate voters from the mainstream party
Adv/dismissive:
Adverial techniques emphasize need for salience
This is deliberate salience reduction which leads to niche party vote loss
Debate 2 why northern Ireland should separate from UK?
Full membership w EU. Separating the island, UK has complicated movement of goods hurting the economy
Decision making by locally elected representatives and macro economic planning created w Ireland in mind
Those who live on the island are brought closer together under one nation.
Debate 2 why Ireland should stay?
General consensus is remaining w UK is their best interest
Many feel remaining in UK provide sense of security for protestant community who fear discrimination and alienation
Stable currency, improving trade
Debate 3 why UK should leave the EU?
Trade flexibility: has potential to negotiate trade deals
Sovereignty and decision making: independence over decision making
Benefits of the new comprehensive free trade agreement
Debate 3 why UK should rejoin EU?
Trade: UK left single market & customs union
Brexit created barriers for students pursuing higher edu
Lack of free movement creates new migration barriers for pop.
Debate 4 why should EU pres be directly elected?
Direct election such influential office much more consistent w principles intended to be achieved in Treaty preamble and member state
Can increase citizens opinions at the EU level
Why EU pres should not be directly elected?
People vote on fear and anxiety
Elected officials know what is best for an institution like the European council
Pres is inherently included to seek consensus to effectively carry out it’s functions
