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Anatomy Exam 3 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

articulation

A

where two bones meet

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2
Q

synarthroses joint

A

immovable joints

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3
Q

ampiarthrises joints

A

slightly moveable joints

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4
Q

Diarthroses joint

A

freely moveable joint

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5
Q

fibrous joints

A

no joint cavity, joins by fibrous tissue

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6
Q

Sutures fibrous joint

A

“seams” only between bones of skull

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7
Q

syndesmoses fibrous joint

A

bones connected by a ligament
ex.distal ends of tibia and fibula

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8
Q

gomphoses fibrous joint

A

“peg in socket”
no movement
ex.teeth

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9
Q

cartilaginous joint

A

articulating bones connected by cartilage

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10
Q

synchondroses cartilaginous joint

A

all immovable (synarthrosis)

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11
Q

symphysis cartilaginous joint

A

articular surfaces of bones are covered with hyaline cartilage which is fused to fibrocartilage
limited movement

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12
Q

synovial joint

A

do have cavity
monaxial
biaxial
triaxial

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13
Q

synovial joint -articular cartilage

A

glassy smooth (hyaline) covers opposing bones surfaces
keeps ends of bones from being crushed

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14
Q

synovial joint-articular capsule

A

2 layered capsule that encloses the joint cavity
external layer(FIBROUS CAPSULE) dense irregular connective tissue -strengthens joint so bones aren’t pulled apart
inner layer (SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE)-covers all internal joint surfaces that aren’t hyaline cartilage

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15
Q

synovial joint-Joint Synovial Cavity

A

potential space, contains small amount of synovial fluid

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16
Q

synovial joint-synovial fluid

A

slippery fluid occupies all free spaces within joint capsule
provides weight bearing film that reduces friction
has phagocytes cells that eat debris

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17
Q

synovial joint _reinforcing ligaments

A

band like ligaments connecting bone to bone

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18
Q

Bursa

A

“purse”
flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane containing a thin film of synovial fluid

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19
Q

articular surfaces

A

determine what movements possible
play minor role in stability
ball and socket

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20
Q

ligaments

A

the more ligaments, the more stable

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21
Q

muscle tone

A

tendons (muscles) coming across the joint provide most stability

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22
Q

gliding joint

A

slight non-axial or multi-axial
ex.acromioclavicular

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23
Q

hinge joint(door)

A

monaxial
ex.elbow

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24
Q

pivot joint

A

rotation
monaxial
ex.radio-ulnar joint

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25
Q

condylar joint

A

biaxial
ex.metacarpals

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26
Q

saddle joint

A

biaxial
allows for apposition

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27
Q

ball and socket joint

A

triaxial
ex.hip joint
largest degree of movement

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28
Q

origin

A

attachment to less moveable bone

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29
Q

insertion

A

attachment to moveable bone

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30
Q

when does movement occur

A

when a muscle contracts across joint and insertion moves towards origin

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31
Q

lever

A

bone

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32
Q

fulcrum

A

joint

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33
Q

applied force to make lever move

A

effort

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34
Q

first class lever

A

has fulcrum in middle between effort and resistance
ex.back of neck

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35
Q

second class lever

A

resistance between fulcrum and effort
ex.jaw and chin

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36
Q

third class lever

A

effort between the resistance and the fulcrum
ex.most joints

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37
Q

circumduction

A

circular motion

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38
Q

rotation

A

c1 c2

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39
Q

sprains

A

ligaments are stretched or torn

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40
Q

strains

A

muscle/tendon are stretched or torn

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41
Q

cartilage injuries

A

tearing knee menisci

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42
Q

luxation

A

total dislocation

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43
Q

subluxation

A

partial dislocation

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44
Q

bursitis

A

inflammation of bursa

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45
Q

tendinitis

A

inflammation of tendon

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46
Q

arthritis

A

inflammatory diseases that damages joints

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47
Q

muscle fiber

A

myofiber, myocyle
few cm in lengths
lots of nuclei
cytoplasm has contractile proteins called myofibril

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48
Q

cytoplasm of muscle

A

sacroplasm

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49
Q

cell membrane of muscle

A

sarcolemma

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50
Q

transverse tubules

A

sarcolemme has tunnel like unfolding
carry electric current to cell

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51
Q

muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

store calcium
around myofibril

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52
Q

endomysium

A

around single muscle fiber
contains myosatallite cells that repair damage

53
Q

perimysium

A

around a fascicle
contains blood vessels and nerve supply

54
Q

epimysium

A

surrounds fascicles
separates muscle from surrounding tissues

55
Q

aponeuroses

A

broad sheet-like structure , not chord like

56
Q

myofibril

A

bundles of myofilaments, contain contractile proteins
thick filaments (myosin)
thin filaments (actin)

57
Q

study organization of sarcomere

A
58
Q

A band

A

produced from overlapping thick and thin filaments

59
Q

M line

A

center of A band

60
Q

H band

A

on either side of M line, no thin filaments

61
Q

zone of overlap

A

contains thick and thin filaments on either side of H band

62
Q

I band

A

contains thin filaments only

63
Q

Z lines

A

mark boundary
interconnect thin filaments

64
Q

titian

A

elastic protein that connects the thick filaments to the Z line , brings it bzck

65
Q

thick filament (myosin)

A

shaped like golf club, but with two heads
heads stick out to form cross bridge

66
Q

thin filament ACTIN

A

interacts with proteins tropomyosin and troop in

67
Q

sliding filament theory

A

shortening of sarcomere
when muscle contracts, it gets smaller
filaments don’t change in length , they overlap

68
Q

nerve muscle relationships

A

skeletal muscle must be stimulated by a nerve
somatic motor fibers (terminal end branches supply one muscle fiber

69
Q

motor unit

A

each motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it integrates

70
Q

fine control

A

small motor units contain as few as 20 muscle fibers per nerve fiber
ex.eye muscles

71
Q

strength control

A

gastrocnemius muscle has 1000 fibers per never fiber

72
Q

Neuromuscular junctions (synapse)

A

Functional connection between nerve fiber and muscle cell
•Neurotransmitter (acetylcholine/ACh) released from nerve fiber stimulates muscle cell
•Components of synapse (NMJ):
•Synaptic knob is swollen end of nerve fiber (contains ACh)
•Junctional folds region of sarcolemma
•increases surface area for ACh receptors
•contains acetylcholinesterase that breaks down ACh and causes relaxation
•Synaptic cleft = tiny gap between nerve and muscle cells

73
Q

Electrically Excitable Cells

A

plasma membrane is polarized or charged
stimulation opens ion gates in membrane

74
Q

excitation

A

nerve action potentials lead to action potentials in muscle fiber (create action potential)

75
Q

excitation-contraction coupling

A

action potentials on the sarcolemma activate myofilaments

76
Q

contraction

A

shortening of muscle fiber

77
Q

relaxation

A

return to resting lemgth

78
Q

Excitation steps 1 and 2

A

Nerve signal opens voltage-gated calcium channels. Calcium stimulates exocytosis of synaptic vesicles containing ACh = ACh release into synaptic cleft.

79
Q

excitation steps 3 and 4

A

Binding of ACh to NICOTONIC ACh receptor proteins opens Na+ and K+ channels resulting in jump in RMP from -90mV to +30 mV forming an end-plate potential (EPP)

80
Q

excitation step 5

A

Voltage change in end-plate region (EPP) opens nearby voltage-gated channels producing an action potential

81
Q

excitation-contraction coupling (steps 6 and 7)

A

Action potential spreading over sarcolemma enters T tubules – voltage-gated channels open in T tubules causing calcium gates to open in SR

82
Q

Excitation-Contraction Coupling (steps 8 and 9)

A

Calcium released by SR binds to troponin
•Troponin-tropomyosin complex changes shape and exposes active sites on actin

83
Q

Relaxation (steps 14 and 15)

A

Nerve stimulation ceases and acetylcholinesterase removes ACh from receptors. Stimulation of the muscle cell ceases.

84
Q

Relaxation (step 16)

A

Active transport needed to pump calcium back into SR
•ATP is needed for muscle relaxation as well as muscle contraction

85
Q

Relaxation (steps 17 and 18)

A

Loss of calcium from sarcoplasm moves troponin-tropomyosin complex over active sites
•stops the production or maintenance of tension
•Muscle fiber returns to its resting length due to recoil of series-elastic components and contraction of antagonistic muscles

86
Q

Pesticides (cholinesterase inhibitors)

A

•bind to acetylcholinesterase and prevent it from degrading ACh
•spastic paralysis and possible suffocation

87
Q

Flaccid paralysis is caused by

A

toxin of Clostridium (botulinum) bacteria

88
Q

Flaccid paralysis (limp muscles) due to

A

due to curare that competes with ACh
•respiratory arrest

89
Q

Myasthenia Gravis

A

Autoimmune disease - antibodies attack NMJ and bind ACh receptors in clusters
•receptors removed
•less and less sensitive to ACh
•drooping eyelids and double vision, difficulty swallowing, weakness of the limbs, respiratory failure
•Disease of women between 20 and 40
•Treated with cholinesterase inhibitors, thymus removal, or immunosuppressive agents

90
Q

Rigor Mortis

A

Muscles begin to stiffen 3 to 4 hours after death
•Occurs because dying cells have a massive release of ? from the SR which promotes myosin cross bridge binding
•Dead = no more ATP.
•Rigor mortis disappears as muscle proteins break down several hours after death (48 to 60 hours)

91
Q

M uscle Tension

A

When sarcomeres contract, they shorten which shortens the muscle fiber
•Muscle fiber shortening causes tension on the connective tissue attached to muscle (tendons).
•The tension produced can vary…

92
Q

Length-Tension Relationship

A

Amount of tension generated depends on length of muscle before it was stimulated
•length-tension relationship (see graph next slide)
•Overly contracted (weak contraction results)
•thick filaments too close to Z discs and can’t slide
•Too stretched (weak contraction results)
•little overlap of thin and thick does not allow for very many cross bridges too form
•Optimum resting length produces greatest force when muscle contracts
•central nervous system maintains optimal length producing muscle tone or partial contraction

93
Q

Recruitment and Stimulus Intensity

A

Stimulating the whole nerve with higher and higher voltage produces stronger contractions
•More motor units are being recruited
•called multiple motor unit summation
•lift a glass of milk versus a whole gallon of milk

94
Q

3 Phases of Twitch

A

Latent period before contraction:
–the action potential moves through sarcolemma
–causing Ca2+ release
2.Contraction phase:
–calcium ions bind
–tension builds to peak
3.Relaxation phase:
–Ca2+ levels fall
–active sites are covered
–tension falls to resting levels

95
Q

Unfused (incomplete) tetanus

A

Some relaxation occurs between contractions
·Sustained, fluttering contractions of motor units
·The results are summed into a smooth contraction

96
Q

·Fused (complete) tetanus

A

No evidence of relaxation before the following contractions
·The result is an intense, sustained muscle contraction
·Calcium is never reclaimed by the SR

97
Q

Isometric muscle contraction

A

develops tension without changing length
•important in postural muscle function and antagonistic muscle joint stabilization

98
Q

Isotonic muscle contraction

A

Same tension while shortening = concentric
•Same tension while lengthening = eccentric

99
Q

anaerobic fermentation

A

ATP production limited)
•without oxygen, produces lactic acid

100
Q

aerobic respiration

A

more ATP produced)
•requires continuous oxygen supply, produces H2O and CO2

101
Q

Phosphagen system- IMMEDIATE ENEGRRY

A

myokinase transfers Pi groups 
from one ADP to another forming ATP
•creatine kinase transfers Pi groups from creatine phosphate to make ATP
•Result is power enough for 1 minute brisk walk or 6 seconds of sprinting

102
Q

Glycogen-lactic acid system takes over- SHORT TERM ENERGY
no oxygen

A

Glycogen-lactic acid system takes over
• produces ATP for 30-40 seconds of maximum activity
•playing basketball or running around baseball diamonds
•muscles obtain glucose from blood and stored glycogen

103
Q

Long-Term Energy Needs
•Aerobic respiration needed for prolonged exercise

A

Produces 36 ATPs/glucose molecule
•After 40 seconds of exercise, respiratory and cardiovascular systems must deliver enough oxygen for aerobic respiration
•oxygen consumption rate increases for first 3-4 minutes and then levels off to a steady state
•Limits are set by depletion of glycogen and blood glucose, loss of fluid and electrolytes

104
Q

Oxygen Debt

A

Heavy breathing after strenuous exercise

Purposes for extra oxygen
•replace oxygen reserves (myoglobin, blood hemoglobin, in air in the lungs and dissolved in plasma)
•replenishing the phosphagen system
•reconverting lactic acid to glucose (oxidation) in kidneys and liver
•serving the elevated
metabolic rate that occurs as
long as the body temperature
remains elevated by exercise

105
Q

Slow- Twitch Fibers

A

Slow oxidative fibers
•Smaller diamter, MORE MITOCHONDRIA, myoglobin and capillaries
•adapted for aerobic respiration and resistant to fatigue
•Slow to contract
•soleus and postural muscles of the back

106
Q

Fast-Twitch Fibers

A

Have large diameter, large glycogen reserves, FEW MITOCHONDRIA
•Fast glycolytic, fast-twitch fibers
•rich in enzymes for phosphagen and glycogen-lactic acid systems
•sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium quickly so contractions are quicker
•extraocular eye muscles,
gastrocnemius and biceps brachii
•Fatigue quickly

107
Q

Muscles and Fiber Types

A

White muscle:
–mostly fast fibers
–pale (e.g., chicken breast)
•Chickens fly in bursts
•Red muscle:
–mostly slow fibers
–dark (e.g., chicken legs)
•Chickens walk a lot
•Most human muscles:
–mixed fibers
–pink

108
Q

Study Cardiac Muslce page 62

A
109
Q

Major Organelles of the Cell Body of Neuron

A

Large nucleus and nucleolus
•Cytoplasm (perikaryon - around the nucleus)
•Mitochondria – What does this do?
•Nissl Bodies - RER and ribosomes (produce neurotransmitters)
•Cytoskeleton

110
Q

The Cytoskeleton of neuron

A

Neurofilaments and neurotubules:
•in place of microfilaments and microtubules
•Neurofibrils:
•bundles of neurofilaments
•support dendrites and axon

111
Q

Dendrites in Neuron

A

Highly branched
•Dendritic spines:
•many fine processes
•receive information from other neurons
•80–90% of neuron surface area

112
Q

Axon in neuron

A

Only one per neuron
•Carries electrical signal (action potential) to target
•Axon structure is critical to function (much more to come!)

113
Q

Structures of the Axon in neuron

A

Axoplasm:
•cytoplasm of axon
•What was the cytoplasm around the nucleus called?
•Perikaryon
•contains neurotubules, neurofibrils, enzymes, organelles
•Axolemma:
•specialized cell membrane
•covers the axoplasm

114
Q

Structures of the Axon p 2

A

Axon hillock:
•thick section of cell body
•attaches to initial segment
•Initial segment:
•attaches to axon hillock

Collaterals:
•branches of a single axon
•Telodendria:
•fine extensions of distal axon
•Synaptic terminals:
•tips of axon

115
Q

Myelin Sheath Of The Axon

A

Whitish, fatty protein layer (20% protein and 80 % lipid)
•Serves to protect and electrically insulate axon
•Increases the speed of transmission of nerve impulses (up to 150 times faster)
•Only associated with axons, not dendrites
•All myelination completed by late adolescence

116
Q

CNS- Consists of the Brain AND spinal cord

A

Functions to integrate, process and coordinate sensory data and motor commands

117
Q

PNS- Includes neural tissue outside the CNS

A

Delivers sensory information to the CNS
•Carries motor information from CNS to peripheral tissues and systems

118
Q

CNS Support Cells (Neuroglia)
·Astrocytes

A

Abundant, Star-shaped Cells - Form Framework Of CNS
·Contribute To BBB And Regulate Composition Of Brain Tissue Fluid
·Convert Glucose To Lactate To Feed Neurons
·Secrete Nerve Growth Factor Promoting Synapse Formation
·Sclerosis – Damaged Neurons Replace By Hardened Mass Of Astrocytes

119
Q

CNS Support Cells (Neuroglia)

Microglia

A

Spider-like phagocytes
·Dispose of debris in areas of infection, trauma or stroke

120
Q

CNS Support Cells (Neuroglia)

Ependymal cells

A

Have cilia
·Line cavities of the 
brain and spinal cord
·Produce AND circulate 
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

121
Q

CNS Support Cells (Neuroglia)
Oligdendrocytes

A

Produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the central nervous system (more on this soon!)

122
Q

Multiple Sclerosis

A

Autoimmune
•Oligodendrocytes and myelin sheaths of CNS degenerate
•Replaced by hardened scar tissue
•Between 20-40 years old
•Double vision, blindness, speech defects, neurosis, tremors, numbness
•Variable cycles until bedridden
•No Cure

123
Q

How Does The Message Get Passed Along?

A

Information from one neuron flows to another neuron across a synapse…
•a small gap separating neurons that consists of:
•a presynaptic ending that contains neurotransmitters, mitochondria & other organelles
•a postsynaptic ending that contains receptor sites for neurotransmitters
•a synaptic cleft or space between the presynaptic & postsynaptic endings.

124
Q

Getting the message across(the synapse)

A

AP signal arrives at the axon terminal
•This causes VOLTAGE GATED Ca2+ channel to open
•Ca2+ diffuses into neuron
•Causes NT vesicles to move to end & fuse with cell membrane
•Through exocytosis, NTs are released into synapse
•NTs diffuse across synapse & bind to NT receptors on another neuron
•Causes LIGAND GATED Na+ channels to open & AP is initiated in next neuron

125
Q

Types Of Receptors - Ionotropic

A

Also called a ligand – gated receptor
•They open or close a channel that lets small particles (ions) in.
•No second messenger is involved= Direct effect

126
Q

Types Of Receptors – Metabotropic 2 Types

A

Direct coupling- slow process
•Think meta = middle man

127
Q

Types Of Receptors – Metabotropic 2 Types

A

. Second messenger system = even slower

128
Q

What is cAMP and what does it do?

A

Cyclic AMP is a secondary messenger derived from ATP.

It can open cell membrane channels & can activate enzymes

One example, is by epinephrine binding to the beta-adrenergic receptor (more on this soon), activation of PKA to cause the stimulation of glycogen breakdown.

129
Q

2 Classes Of Neurotransmitters

A

Excitatory neurotransmitters:
•cause depolarization of postsynaptic membranes
•promote action potentials
2.Inhibitory neurotransmitters:
•cause hyperpolarization (goes in opposite direction of depolarization) of postsynaptic membranes
•suppress action potentials

Anatomy Exam 3 (1 decks)

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