Exam 3 Flashcards
Ecology
the study of organisms and their home (environment)
organismal level
one individual and what it is experiencing; physiological ecology is how does it survive, behavioral ecology is why do individuals make specific choices for behaviors in a certain context
population level
multiple individuals within one species in a defined time and space; predicting growth and extinction
community level
multiple different species; aspects of the community that involve all species; biodiversity
ecosystem level
includes abiotic factors (e.g. water); trophisms (energy flow)
landscape level
multiple ecosystems
global level
all ecosystems in the world; the biosphere and the atmosphere
natural history
observing and describing organisms and their environments (where ecology begins)
environmentalism
includes humans/social/policy/activism…
dispersal
the movement of individuals or gametes away from their parent location, this movement sometimes expands the geographic range of a population or species.
biotic factors
other species, predation, parasitism, competition, disease…living factors in the environment
abiotic factors
physical/chemical properties of an environment, nonliving
climate
the prevailing weather conditions at a locality, made up of temperature, water, wind, and sunlight
isotherm
all the geographic places on a map that have the same temperature
photic zone
the narrow top layer of an ocean or lake, where light penetrates sufficiently for photosynthesis to occur
aphotic zone
the part of an ocean or lake beneath the photic zone, where light does not penetrate sufficiently for photosynthesis to occur
thermocline
a place in a lake where both light and oxygen levels change dramatically
lake stratification
water at different temperatures that occurs in bands across a lake
littoral
in a lake, the shallow, well-lit waters close to shore
limnetic
in a lake, the shallow, well-lit waters far away from shore
intertidal
In the ocean, the area between the lowest tide water mark and the highest tide water mark
neurotic
the shallow, well lit area of an ocean that sits over the continental shelf
benthic
the zone in both lakes and oceans that is the bottom surface
oceanic
the area of the ocean that is not over the continental shelf, most of the ocean
abysmal
the benthic zone at the very bottom of the ocean between 2,000-6,000m deep
pelagic
open water component of aquatic biomes
biome
any of the world’s major ecosystem types, often classified according to the predominant vegetation for terrestrial biomes and the physical environment for aquatic biomes and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular environment
climograph
a graph that shows the distribution of different biomes with both temperature and precipitation axes, a plot of the temperature and precipitation in a particular region
rain shadow
the effect where the windward side of the mountain has more precipitation than the leeward side of the mountain due to the moisture all precipitating on the windward side
elevation
height above a given (sea) level, with 1000m of elevation, air temperature goes down 6º F due to air occupying more volume, pressure decreasing, and temperature decreasing
aspect
the way a mountain/hill slope faces. In the northern hemisphere, the norm-facing slope is cooler and wetter, due to being shaded. It is the opposite in the southern hemisphere
microclimate
climate patterns on a very fine scale, such as the specific climatic conditions underneath a log
tension zone
a transitional zone between two climatic zones, the one in wisconsin is due to different air masses (northern vs. southern WI)
population
individuals of one species simultaneously occupying the same general area, utilizing the same resources, and influenced by similar environmental factors (existing in the same defined time and space)
population ecology
the study of how biotic and abiotic factors influence the density, distribution, size, and age structure of a population
density
the number of individuals per area or volume
dispersion
patterns of spacing among individuals in a population
birth
a way individuals are added to a population/area
immigration
the influx of new individuals into a population from other areas
death
a way individuals are removed from a population/area
emigration
the movement of individuals out of a population
population size
N, the total number of individuals in a population
mark-recapture
an effective tool to estimate population size. first capture a group of the population and mark them, release them into the wild, recapture a group, count the number of marked individuals in the new sample, calculate sample size with a proportion
dispersion pattern
the way individuals are arranged in space, clumped, uniform, or random
clumped
a dispersion pattern in which individuals gather in clumps (potentially for resources)
uniform
a dispersion pattern where there is pretty equal distance between individuals, frequently occurs in nesting birds
random
a dispersion pattern in which the individuals are randomly placed, can happen with wind sometimes but there are currents
demography
The study of vital rates of a population and how they change over time
life table
a schedule/table of vital rates
age
how old an individual is
vital rate
age or stage-specific summary of survival patterns
death rate
mortality rate
fecundity
birth rate
generation time
the average amount of time between the birth of an individual and the birth of its first offspring
survivorship
Lx = the proportion of offspring produced that survive, on average, to a particular age
survivorship curve
a plot of the number of members of a cohort that are still alive at each age; one way to represent age-specific mortality
type I survivorship curve
flat at the start, reflecting low death rates during early and middle life, and then drops steeply as death rates increase among older age-groups, typically seen in large mammals
type III survivorship curve
drops sharply at the start, reflecting very high death rates for the young, but flattens out as death rates decline for those few individuals that survive the early period of die-off, typically in organisms that have many offspring with little/no offspring care
type II survivorship curve
intermediate, with a constant death rate over the organism’s life span, in Belding’s ground squirrels, other rodents, invertebrates…
semelparity
lots of offspring, only reproduce once in their lifetime
i tero parity
reproduce multiple times, few offspring per round
parthenogenetic females
females who can give birth
model
Representations of the more complex reality, a simplification, verbal, conceptual diagram, quantitative/formal, inherently has tradeoffs between generality, precision, and realism
exponential growth
As the x-value increases, the y-value increases at a much higher rate, models for population growth when resources are not limited
number of births
B, the total number of new births in a population in a specified time period
per capital birth rate
b, B/N, the number of births in relation to the population size
number of deaths
D, the total number of deaths in a population in a specified time period
per capital death rate
d, D/N, the number of deaths relative to the population size (note that Campbell uses m for mortality for death rate)
per capita rate of increase
r, b-d, the net reproductive rate, the per capita growth rate, larger (or more negative) r means more rapid change in population size
intrinsic (maximum) rate of increase
r_max, the maximum per capita rate of increase, equal to R when in exponential growth with no limiting resources
carrying capacity
(K), The upper boundary for population size that can be sustained over a relatively long time period
parenthetical feedback term
[(K-N)/K], The term that causes the growth to be logistic instead of exponential
life history strategy
the traits that affect an organism’s schedule of reproduction and survival
r-selected species
selection for life history traits that maximize reproductive success in uncrowded environments
K-selected species
selection for life history traits that are sensitive to population density
density-dependent regulation
Flat slope, referring to any characteristic that varies with population density
density-independent regulation
Angled slope, referring to any characteristic that is not affected by population density
metapopulation
Spatially separated populations (subpopulations) that are linked by dispersal of individuals
occupancy
Either 1 or 0 (occupied or unoccupied)
source
Net exporters of individuals (b>d, r>0)
sink
Net importers of individuals (b<d, r>0)
demographic transition
In a stable population, a shift from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates
age structure
the relative number of individuals of each age in a population
population pyramids
Pyramid that shows population size (both male and female) in each age group
community
The assemblage of populations of different species that occur in the same place
coexistence
The state of two or more species being found in the same place at the same time
species interactions
Competition, consumer-resource relations, mutualism, commensalism and amensalism
niche
The abiotic and biotic conditions that species need to grow, survive, and reproduce. Cannot be the same for two species
competition
A species interaction that causes negative effects on both species, when two or more species rely on similar limiting resources
intraspecific
Competition between individuals of the same species
inter specific
Competition between individuals of different species
consumer-resource interactions
Parasitism, predator-prey, herbivory. Interactions that benefit one species and hurt the other
competitive exclusion principle
Two species that use a limiting resource in the same way cannot coexist indefinitely
limiting resource
environmental features that limit the growth, abundance, or distribution of an organism or a population of organisms in an ecosystem
resource partitioning
The use of limiting resources by different species in a community in different ways
predation
A species interaction where one species (the predator) kills and eats the other species (the prey)
predator-prey dynamics
There needs to be a tight coupling of the predator and prey populations, with the predator population following the prey population pattern but slightly behind
deceptive markings
Markings that appear dangerous (e.g. fake eyes)
cryptic coloration
Coloration to avoid predation (blend in, e.g. leaf insects, gecko)
aposematic coloration
Bright, obvious color warns of toxicity to predator
batesian mimicry
Non-toxic species look very similar to toxic species to get the benefit from the predator knowing that the toxic species are toxic
müllerian mimicry
all toxic species look similar
herbivory
The consumption of plants by animals, often times the entire plant isn’t killed
parasitism
One organism (the parasite) derives its nourishment from another organism (the host)
mutualism
An interaction that benefits both species involved (e.g. the wrasse eating parasites in the mouth of a large fish)
commensalism
An interaction that benefits one species but has no impact on the other species (e.g. an egret on a cattle’s back)
amensalism
An interaction in which one species is harmed and the other is not affected (e.g. an elephant stepping on an ant)
behavior
An action that is carried out in response to a stimulus
behavioral ecology
The study of the ecological and evolutionary basis of behavior
foraging
Behavior associated with obtaining food resources
optimal foraging model
Evolutionarily selected foraging behavior that minimizes the costs and maximizes the benefits of foraging
species richness
The number of species in a community
species density
The number of species per unit area or volume
species relative abundance
The proportion of the total community occupied by a species (number of individuals in a spp. / total individuals)
species evenness
A comparison of the relative abundance of each species in a community
Shannon Diversity Index
H, combines species richness and evenness as a measure of species diversity, typically in the range 1.5-3.5
dominant species
A species that has a large impact on a community due to its high abundance, e.g. alder trees, kelp
keystone species
Not dominant, relatively high impact (disproportionate to its biomass), e.g. starfish, yellowstone wolves
ecosystem engineers
Species that affect the structure of the ecosystem (e.g. beavers, earthworms)
ecosystem services
Processes or products supplied by the ecosystem that we use
disturbance
An event that removes all or part of the biomass of a community, removes organisms, alters resource availability
disturbance regime
How disturbance can vary (in size, frequency, and intensity). The combination of these three factors is the disturbance regime
disturbance size
The difference in how much area a disturbance affects, small disturbances can create patches of different habitats across a landscape, which help maintain diversity in a community and large disturbances can change many things
disturbance frequency
How often a disturbance occurs
disturbance intensity
How aggressive a disturbance is, how much damage it causes
succession
The changes in species composition and community structure over time (usually following a disturbance)
primary succession
Occurs when the disturbance was very intense, starts on a site that was not previously occupied by other organisms: soil not yet formed, starts from low fertility, no biological legacy. E.g. happens after lava flow. Pioneer stage, dryass stage, alder stage, spruce stage
secondary succession
Starts on a site that already supports organisms or vegetation, some soil remaining, biological legacy present
serotiny
the behavior of some plant species that retain their non-dormant seeds in a cone or woody fruit for up to several years, but release them after exposure to fire (cones sealed with wax that melts, etc…)
surface fire
Low intensity, frequent, burns just the brush etc
crown fire
High intensity, infrequent, reaches the crowns (tops) of trees
biogeography
Geographic trends in species distributions and diversity
latitudinal species gradient
Fewer species at poles, more species at equator, due to climate productivity (solar energy) → longer growing periods, etc…evolutionary history means there were no glaciers at the equator so therefore more time for evolution to occur
species-area curve
The number of species increases with the size of the area sampled, S = cAz where S = number of species encountered when sampling, A = area, c and z = fitted constants, can also be in the form of logS = log c + z log A
island biogeography (island-equilibrium model)
Species richness increases when the size of the island increase and when the island is closer to a mainland
due to increased immigration rates and decreased extinction rates
ecosystem
All the organisms in a given area as well as the abiotic factors with which they interact, flows of energy, exchanges of nutrients
trophic structure
the different feeding relationships in an ecosystem, which determine the route of energy flow and the pattern of chemical cycling
primary producer
Use solar or chemical energy to manufacture their own food (autotrophs)
primary consumer
Consumes the primary producers (herbivores) and can also be called a secondary producer, heterotroph
secondary consumer
Consumes the primary consumers and can also be called a tertiary producer, heterotroph
tertiary consumer
Consumes the secondary consumer, heterotroph
detritivore
Obtain energy by feeding on the dead remains/waste products of other organisms, a heterotroph, eats detritus
decomposer
detritivore
detritus
dead organic matter
food chain
the pathway along which food energy is transferred from trophic level to trophic level, beginning with producers
food web
The interconnected feeding relationships in an ecosystem, hard to quantify
trophic level
Organisms that obtain their energy from the same type of source (feeding level)
primary production
The rate at which light energy is converted to chemical energy by autotrophs in an ecosystem
gross primary production
GPP, the total primary production
net primary production
NPP, the GPP minus respiration (GPP - R), typically is about 15% of GPP
biomass
The dry mass/weight of organic matter present per unit area
secondary production
Growth (new biomass), the amount of chemical energy in consumers’ food that is converted to their own new biomass during a given time period
net secondary production
the amount of energy an organism has consumed and used for growth and reproduction
production efficiency
The percent of energy that is stored in assimilated food that is NOT used for respiration, GAINED MASS / ASSIMILATED FOOD, varies with exercise, metabolism…energy expended
energy pyramid
Represents the loss of energy with each transfer in a food chain, the net productions of different trophic levels are arranged in tiers
biomass pyramid
Represents the ecological consequence of low trophic efficiencies, each tier represents the total dry mass of all organisms in one trophic level, most narrow sharply from primary producers at the base to top-level carnivores at the apex because energy transfers between trophic levels are so inefficient, some can be inverted (if the primary producers grow, reproduce, and are consumed super fast so their biomass stays low )
trophic efficiency
the percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next
top-down control
A situation in which the abundance of organisms at each trophic level is controlled by the abundance of consumers at higher trophic levels; thus, predators limit herbivores, and herbivores limit plants
bottom-up control
A situation in which the abundance of organisms at each trophic level is limited by nutrient supply or the availability of food at lower trophic levels; thus, the supply of nutrients controls plant numbers, which control herbivore numbers, which in turn control predator numbers, adding more primary producers means all of the trophic levels increase
trophic cascade
A series of changes in the population sizes of organisms at different trophic levels in a food chain, occurring when predators at high trophic levels indirectly promote populations of organisms at low trophic levels by keeping species at intermediate trophic levels in check
landscape ecology
The study of how the spatial arrangement of habitat types affects the distribution and abundance of organisms and ecosystem processes, area, connectivity/isolation, patch shape, edge effects
habitat patch
any discrete area with a definite shape, spatial and configuration used by a species for breeding or obtaining other resources
habitat edge
where different habitat types meet
patch shape
differing ratios of edge to habitat area
edge effects
Differences that develop between the edge and interior/core of patches, often due to changes in microclimate. Canopy height is approximately the width the edge effect extends both ways from the border
heterogeneity
Composition of dissimilar parts (2 unlike items come together), diverse
landscape
An area that is spatially heterogeneous in at least one factor of interest, a mosaic of connected ecosystems
biogeochemical cycle
A chemical cycle that includes both biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems
nutrient pool/reservoir
In a biogeochemical cycle, the location of a chemical element, consisting of either organic or inorganic materials that are either available for direct use by organisms or unavailable as nutrients
mineralization
the decomposition of the chemical compounds in organic matter, by which the nutrients in those compounds are released in soluble inorganic forms that may be available to plants, the conversion of N from an organic form to an inorganic form as a result of microbial activity, specifically the conversion of N in soil organic matter to nitrate where ammonium-N is a short-lived intermediate in conversion of organic N to nitrate-N
assimilation
the process in which living organisms integrate the nutrients from various external resources to their body and utilizes them to satisfy the energy demands required to stay alive, the process by which inorganic nitrogen compounds are used to form organic nitrogen compounds such as amino acids
respiration
break down organic molecules and use of an electron transport chain for the production of ATP
nitrogen saturation
change in N cycling from a closed internal cycle to an open cycle where excess N is leached and/or emitted from the forest ecosystem, when an ecosystem reaches N-saturation, continued N input will cause increased N leaching, nitrous oxide (N2O) emission, and N mineralization and nitrification rates
hypoxia
low or depleted oxygen in a water body
hypoxic zones
Zones of depleted oxygen in the water
eutrophication
A process by which nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, become highly concentrated in a body of water, leading to increased growth of organisms such as algae or cyanobacteria
eutrophic
well-nourished
oligotrophic
low nutrients
nitrogen fixation
the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia, biological nitrogen fixation is carried out by certain prokaryotes, some of which have mutualistic relationships with plants
nitrification
a microbial process by which reduced nitrogen compounds (primarily ammonia) are sequentially oxidized to nitrite and nitrate
denitrification
converts nitrate to nitrogen gas, thus removing bioavailable nitrogen and returning it to the atmosphere
ammonification
the process by which microorganisms present in soil, sediment, or water mineralize low molecular weight, dissolved, organic molecules presenting amine or amide groups and produce ammonium (NH4+).
blue-baby syndrome
a condition where a baby’s skin turns blue, can be caused by Consuming too much nitrate which can affect how blood carries oxygen
non point-source pollution
Pollution from diffuse sources
point-source pollution
Single, identifiable pollution source
cyanobacteria
microscopic bacteria that live in all types of waterbodies. A large growth of these bacteria results in algal blooms
ecosystem processes
Energy flow, water cycle, nutrient cycle, community dynamics
Milankovitch cycle
Effects the natural climate cycle, the tilt of the earth varies over 41,000 years (from 22.1°-24.5°)
sunspot
“Solar storms,” variations in solar output, solar energy maximum every 11ish years
greenhouse effect
The layer of protective gasses in the atmosphere including CO2, CH4, H2O that reflect solar radiation energy to keep the earth warm, we need it to exist, naturally the energy in and out are balanced but now the excess gasses trap more energy
IPCC
Intergovernmental panel on climate change, models the change in global temperature both with only natural forces and with natural and human forces
phenology
The timing of seasonal activity for organisms
ecotone
The transition from one type of habitat or ecosystem to another, such as the transition from a forest to a grassland
biodiversity loss
Due to habitat destruction/fragmentation, non-native species, pollution, overexploitation, disease, climate change
global change threats
Climate change
habitat loss
Causes biodiversity loss, decline in total available habitat
habitat fragmentation
The breaking up of habitat such that distance between habitat patches increases
isolation
the distance between patches
connectivity
Connected patches cause increase species richness when paired with a fire regime
patch size
Extinction rate down as patch size increases
non-native species
The species evolved in a different place than it is now
introduced species
Non-native species that do not cause problems
invasive species
Non-native species that cause problems in their new environment
conservation biology
The integrated study of ecology, evolutionary biology, physiology, molecular biology, and genetics to conserve biological diversity at all levels
conservationists
Gifford Pinchot, human-centric, “multiple-use concept” nature is for people, non-equilibrium model of nature, turn of 20th century
preservationists
Emerson, Muir, Thoreau, equilibrial state of nature, quasi-religious view, no change in nature, “wild, pristine” nature, 19th-early 20th century
evolutionary-ecological land ethic
Aldo Leopold, evolutionary biology, bridged conservationists and preservationists, non-equilibrial state of nature, nature is interdependent on humans
biodiversity hotspot
Small areas with high numbers of species /high species richness
applied island biogeography
Use the idea of island size/distance to create reserves with the most species richness
SLOSS
Single large or several small, two approaches to land conservation
corridor
Thin strips of habitat that connect otherwise separated patches (e.g. highway overpass)
marine protected areas (MPA)
a defined region designated and managed for the long-term conservation of marine resources, ecosystems services, or cultural heritage
mitigation
Regulate and manage carbon emissions and other greenhouse gasses
adaptation
Given that the climate is changing, find solutions that prevent negative impacts
managed relocation
the intentional relocation of populations of native wildlife to habitats that they do not now live in as a hedge against hypothetical changes in their current ranges
restoration ecology
The process of assisting the recovery of damaged, degraded, or destroyed habitats. Clearly set goals, ways to measure progress towards the goal
pollinator services
About $25 billion contributed to food production by pollinators, being threatened by limited/monotonous floral resources, fungicides, pesticides, parasites and pathogens
