Exam 3 Flashcards
What hormone deals with stress?
cortisol
What gland produces prolactin?
anterior pituitary gland
What hormone is secreted by lactotropes?
prolactin
What does prolactin release cause in females? Males? Both?
stimulates milk production
may induce testicular LH receptors
osmoregulation, promotion of growth, support of metabolism, water drive
What occurs when there is an absence of FSH?
no follicles are produced and sperm production ceases
What hormones (2) regulate prolactin?
prolactin inhibiting hormone
prolactin-releasing factor
What gland produces follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)?
anterior pituitary gland
What hormone(s) are secreted by gonadotropes?
FSH and LH
What does FSH release cause in females? Males?
stimulates growth and development of ovarian follicles and promotes secretion of estrogen by the ovaries
stimulates spermatogenesis
What occurs when there is an absence of FSH?
no follicles are produced and sperm production ceases
What gland produces luteinizing hormone (LH)?
anterior pituitary gland
What does LH release cause in females? Males?
ovulation, luteinization and the formation of the CL, regulation of ovarian secretions of estrogen and progesterone
stimulates the Leydig cells of the testes to secrete testosterone
What gland produces growth hormone (GH)?
anterior pituitary gland
What hormone is secreted by somatotropes?
growth hormone
What else is growth hormone called?
somatotropin
Growth hormone is the primary hormone responsible for…
regulation of growth and metabolism
Formed embryonically from an outgrowth of the brain
Consists of nervous tissue
pituitary gland
What 2 peptide neurohormones are stored and released by the posterior pituitary gland?
vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone or ADH)
oxytocin
T/F The posterior pituitary does not produce hormones, just stores and releases hormones.
True
The hypothalamus is connected to the posterior pituitary gland via what?
the nerve network
What enhances retention of water in the kidneys?
vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone ADH)
What is the vasopresser effect?
causes contraction of arteriolar smooth muscle
constriction of the arterioles –> increases vascular resistance and increases blood pressure
Oxytocin causes what?
contraction of uterine smooth muscle to aid in parturition and milk let down
What is the hormone of love?
oxytocin
What are the small glands on the thyroid glands?
parathyroid glands
What do the parathyroid glands produce?
parathyroid hormones
What does the parathyroid hormone do?
regulates blood calcium levels with calcitonin
What is the bow-tie-shaped gland overtop of the trachea?
thyroid gland
What are the 3 types of thyroid hormones? What mineral is needed to deionize?
tetraiodothyronine T4
tri-iodothyronine T3
calcitonin
selenium
______ are follicular cells that make up a follicle and are derived from _____.
secretory cells
tyrosine
What are the 4 functions of the thyroid gland?
regulator of metabolism (hypo and hyper)
increase insulin action on carbohydrates
stimulate lipid metabolism
regulate blood calcium levels
What is the small, shark-tooth-shaped gland that sits next to the kidney?
adrenal gland
What 2 distinct cell types does the adrenal gland have?
chromaffin
steroidogenic
What is the outer layer of the adrenal gland called? What does it secrete?
adrenal cortex
steroids
What is the inner layer of the adrenal gland called? What does it secrete?
adrenal medulla
catecholamine
What makes up 80% of the adrenal gland?
adrenal cortex
What are the hormone categories of the adrenal cortex?
mineralocorticoids
glucocorticoids
sex steroids
What is an example of a mineralocorticoid?
aldosterone –> Na and K balance
What are examples of glucocorticoids?
cortisol and corticosterone –> metabolism and coping with stress
What do cortisol and corticosteroid do to the body?
increase blood glucose through gluconeogenesis during times of stress
suppress the immune system
What is an example of a sex steroid?
DHEA
What do sex steroids do to the body?
produces hormones similar to those produced by gonads
DHEA functions as a metabolic intermediate for androgen and estrogen steroid hormones
What part of the adrenal gland is a modified part of the sympathetic nervous system? What response does it trigger?
adrenal medulla
fight or flight through epinephrin and noepinephrin
What hormones does the adrenal medulla handle? What do they cause (4)?
epinephrine
norepinephrine
vasoconstriction
gastrointestinal relaxation
stimulation of the heart
dilation of bronchi
An organ composed of both endocrine and exocrine tissue…
pancreas
What are the endocrine cells of the pancreas called?
islets of Langerhans
What are the three parts of the islets of Langerhans?
alpha cells
beta cells
delta cells
What do alpha cells in the pancreas secrete? What does that hormone do?
glucagon
increases blood glucose levels by breaking down glycogen
What do beta cells in the pancreas secrete? What does that hormone do?
secrete insulin
decreases blood glucose and causes glucose to be stored as glycogen
stimulates amino acid uptake and protein synthesis
What do delta cells in the pancreas secrete? What does that hormone do?
somatostatin
inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon
What endocrine gland has been newly recognized?
adipose tissue
What hormone does adipose tissue produce?
leptin
What does leptin do to the body?
provides signals to the hypothalamus
What organ produces hormones in a cycle?
ovaries
What hormones control the production of hormones caused by the ovaries?
FSH and LH
What hormones do the ovaries produce?
estrogen (produced by follicles)
progestins
What does estrogen cause in the body?
estrogen increases as the follicle grows
positive and negative feedback on gonadotropins
uterine contractions, growth of tract, secondary sex characteristics
What does progestins do to the body?
cells of ruptured follicles develop into CL
maintain pregnancy, inhibin of estrus, negative feedback on gonadotropins
What are the main components of the testes? What do they produce?
semineferous tubules
sperm
What are Leydig cells? What do they produce and what does that hormone do?
groups of endocrine cells between seminiferous tubules
androgens (testosterone) when stimulated by LH
testosterone: provides development for male secondary sex characteristics and accessory sex glands
activates spermatogenesis
stimulates build-up of muscle and bone
Which gland regulates the pituitary gland?
hypothalamus
Which gland is NOT involved in the release of thyroid hormone?
adrenal gland
Which pituitary hormone is involved with stress?
adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH)
Which hormone is released when blood calcium levels are too low?
parathyroid hormone
Which gland is adjacent to the kidneys?
adrenal gland
Which hormone is activated during fight or flight?
epinephrine
Which hormone increases blood glucose levels?
glucagon
Which hormone is involved in feed intake?
leptin
What are the 3 components of the cardiovascular system?
pump
fluid
vessels
What comprises the “pump” of the cardiovascular system?
heart
What comprises the “fluid” of the cardiovascular system?
blood or hemolymph
What comprises the “vessels” of the cardiovascular system?
veins, arteries, and capillaries
What is the fibrous sac that holds the heart? What tissue Is it?
pericardium
connective tissue
What are the 2 parts of the pericardium? What are some components of each?
fibrous pericardium
tough
allows heart to move
serous pericardium
parietal (outer) layer
visceral (inner) layer
What is the fluid between layers of the serous pericardium? What are functions (3)?
pericardial fluid
provides lubrication
prevents friction
contraction
What is pericarditis?
increase in pericardial fluid during periods of infection/injury
constriction of heart movement due to pericardial fluid
What organ is at the center of the cardiovascular system? What are some functions? What are the 2 parts that fuse during embryonic development?
heart
muscular pump
pumps blood throughout the body
base (cranial)
apex (caudal)
What are the 3 layers of the heart wall?
epicardium (outer)
myocardium (intermediate)
endocardium (inner)
What layer of the heart wall is adjacent to the visceral layer of the pericardium?
epicardium
Which heart wall layer is the muscle layer and made of involuntary striated muscle?
myocardium
Which heart wall layer lines the inside of the heart and is made of simple squamous epithelium?
endocardium
What composes the cardiac skeleton?
4 dense fibrous connective rings made of the different heart wall layers
What are the different parts of the heart (3)? What are their subcategories?
chambers
atrium
ventricle
valves
atrioventricular valves
pulmonary and aortic valves
chordae tendinae
threadlike chords that attach valve to muscle wall
What chamber receives blood that is RETURNING to the heart? What are some components of it?
atrium
2 chambers
right
left
thin muscle wall
when full of blood, contracts to force blood into ventricles
What chamber receives blood that is LEAVING the heart? What are some components of it?
ventricle
2 lower chambers
right –> pumps blood to lungs
left –> pumps blood to body
thick muscle
receives blood from atria
What are the 2 valves on the right side of the heart? Where are they located?
right atrioventricular valves (tricuspid)
between the right atrium and right ventricle
pulmonary valves
between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery
What are the 2 valves on the left side of the heart? Where are they located?
left atrioventricular valve (bicuspid)
between left atrium and left ventricle
aortic valve
between left ventricle and aorta
RAT
Right
Atrioventricular
Tricuspid
LAMB
Left
Atrioventricular
Mitral
Bicuspid
What are the 4 major vessels that enter/leave the heart? Veins travel where? Arteries travel where?
vena cava
pulmonary artery
pulmonary vein
aorta
veins travel into heart
arteries travel away from heart
What vessel enters through the right atrium? What are the 2 parts of it? Is it a vein or an artery?
vena cava
superior (cranial)
inferior (caudal)
vein
What vessel carries blood from the right ventricle to the lungs? Is it a vein or an artery?
pulmonary artery
artery (duh)
What vessel carries blood from lungs to left atrium? Is it a vein or an artery?
pulmonary vein
vein (duh)
What vessel carries blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body? Is it an artery or a vein?
aorta
artery
What type of blood does the right side carry?
deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart
What type of blood do arteries carry? What side of the heart are they located?
oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
What are the 2 components of cardiovascular fluid?
plasma
cellular components
What part of the cardiovascular fluid is 90% water? What components are found in it?
plasma
proteins
fibrinogen (collagen)
albumins (transport)
globulins (alpha, beta, and delta)
transport, clotting, regulator, and immune effectors
electrolytes
Na, Cl, HCO3, K, Ca
membrane potential, buffers pH, osmotic distribution of fluid
nutrients
glucose
amino acids
vitamins
minerals
lipids
What are the 3 lipids found in plasma? What is considered BAD cholesterol? What is considered GOOD cholesterol?
chylomicrons–>transport triglycerides and cholesterol
high-density lipoprotein–>high protein, med phosphor, low cholesterol
low-density lipoprotein –>med protein, med phosphor, high cholesterol
very-low-density–>low protein, mostly lipid
low-density
delivers cholesterol and phospholipids to cells+hearts
high-density
removes excess cholesterol from cells to liver
What are the 3 cellular elements of cardiovascular fluid?
erythrocytes (red blood cells)
leukocytes (white blood cells)
thrombocytes (platelets)
What part of the cardiovascular fluid transports O2? What are some defining characteristics?
erythrocytes
flat cells, no nucleus
contain hemoglobin
Fe and O2
What part of the cardiovascular fluid deals with immunity?
leukocytes
What part of the cardiovascular fluid deals with clotting?
platelets
What causes the heart to beat and blood to flow through? What are 2 components of these?
pacemaker cells
myogenic (originates from muscle)
repeats initiation on action potentials
What nodes are composed of pacemaker cells? Where are they located and what are some characteristics?
sinoatrial node
upper right atrial wall
heart rate/impulses for heartbeat
atria contract at the same time
atrioventricular node
right atrium above tricuspid valve
stimulated by SA node
impulse from this node triggers bundle of His, Purkinje fibers, and ventricles
What is found in the interventricular septum? What are some characteristics?
bundle of His
separates left and right
branching point of AV node
sends impulse to apex of heart
What are the small, terminal fibers that extend from the bundle of His and spread throughout the ventricular myocardium? What do they do?
Purkinje fibers
cause ventricle contraction
What are recorded electrical activities of the heart called? When was the FIRST of these?
electrocardiograms (ECG or EKG)
1887
Who is Walter Einthoven and what’s his significance to the cardiovascular system?
father of modern ECG
Einthoven’s triangle is able to read action potentials extracellularly
What are the 2 parts of the cardiac cycle? What are some characteristics?
diastole
relaxation period
systole
contraction period
What makes the “lub dub” sound in the heart? What causes one to hear a heart murmur?
closing of the heart valves
valves are leaking blood into the chambers
What is the “lub” sound called? What occurs?
What is the “dub” sound called? What occurs?
S1 –> closure of right and left AV valves
loudest in mitral side of heart
S2 –> closure of aortic and pulmonic valves
loudest on left side of chest
What is the term for the volume of blood per minute pumped into the body? What are the associated equation and the components?
cardiac output
cardiac output=stroke volume * heart rate
stroke volume –> volume of blood contracted from heart in mL
heart rate –> number of cardiac cycles in a set time in bpm
What part of the cardiac cycle is involved in metabolic rate? Small animals have _____ resting heart rates than large animals.
cardiac output (rate of energy expended/time)
higher
What is the term for the amount of time for blood to make 1 complete trip from left ventricle to right atrium? How long is it and what does it depend on?
circulation time
40-60 seconds
resting state
animal size
normal heart rate
What is the direction of blood flow through the vessels?
arteries (aorta)
arteriol
capillaries
venvel
vein
vena cava
What are the connective segments of the vascular tree?
arteries
What distributes cardiac output among the organ systems?
arteriol
What is the connective segment that brings blood to every cell?
capillaries
Where is the site of gas/nutrient exchange between blood and cells?
capillaries
What is the connective segment leaving the capillaries to the heart?
venvel
What takes blood towards the heart and is the best spot for bleeding?
veins
What transports blood into the right atrium?
vena cava
Blood flows to _____ pressure. What causes a change in the pressure of a vessel?
lower
constriction increases pressure and reduces flow
dilation decreases pressure and increases flow
Blood flow is autoregulated from…
the level of O2 getting to cells
What is the term for the measureing of the pressure in the blood vessels when your heart beats? When your heart rests between beats?
systolic blood pressure
diastolic blood pressure
What is blood pressure flow measured in (units)?
mmHg
Which organ detects oxygen carrying capacity of the blood?
liver
What cells initiate muscle contraction?
endometrium cells
What is the general term for all the processes of gas movement and metabolism?
respiration
What is external respiration?
exchange of O2 and CO2 between the external environment and cellular mitochondria
What is internal respiration?
respiration on the cellular level
intercellular metabolic processes carried out by the mitochondria to create energy
What are the 4 aspects of internal and external respiration? What does each do?
ventilation
environment, movement, breathing
respiratory exchange
gas exchange between environment and ECF
circulation
transport of ECF
cellular exchange
exchange of O2 and CO2 between cells via capillaries
What are the 6 functions of respiration?
provide O2 and remove CO2 via cells
regulation of body pH
temperature regulation
water elimination
phonation
olfaction
What are the two tracts of the respiratory system?
upper respiratory tract
lower respiratory tract
What compose the upper respiratory tract (6)?
nares
nose
nasal passages
mouth
pharynx
larynx
What composes the lower respiratory tract?
trachea
lungs
bronchi
bronchioles
alveolar ducts
alveoli
What composes the external opening where air flows into body?
nares and nose
What part of the respiratory tract is made of ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium? What are some components?
nasal passage
warms and humidifies air
cools blood for the brain
contains large blood vessels
What are the thin, scroll-like ones that divide the passageway of the sinuses?
nasal turbinates (maxilloturbinals)
What area of the respiratory tract separates the respiratory and digestive tracts?
pharynx
What does the dorsal pharynx open up to? Ventral pharynx?
esophagus to digestive
larynx to respiratory
What area of the respiratory tract is the tube connecting the pharynx to the trachea? What are some components?
larynx
voice box, does phonation
composed of cartilage and epiglottis
smooth muscle
supported by hyoid bone
What are the 3 main functions of the larynx?
voice production
2 connective tissue bands attached to cartilages
prevention on inhalation of foreign material
epiglottis covers trachea opening
controls airflow to and from the lungs
What part of the respiratory tract is the primary passageway for air? What is it connected to (caudal and costal)? What is a major part of it?
trachea
larynx and 2 bronchi
walls contain C-shaped cartilage to prevent collapsing
What organ is the principal structure of respiration? What are the major components?
lungs
bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli
different lobes containing bronchi branches
What are the 3 lobe types of the lungs?
superior
middle
inferior
same for both lungs
What is the sac around the lungs that creates a negative pressure vacuum? What are the 2 cavities associated with it?
pleura
visceral and parietal
What are the components of the visceral and parietal cavities of the lungs?
intrapleural space
negative pressure
mediastinum
superior, anterior, middle, posterior
What part of the lung is the first division of the trachea?
bronchi
What part of the lung are the branches of the bronchi?
bronchioles
What part of the lung is the base of the bronchi/bronchiole branching?
alveolar ducts
What part of the lung participates in gas exchange with the capillaries?
alveoli
What are the 2 types of alveoli cells? What are some components of each?
Type 1 alveolar cells
wall of the alveoli
primary site of gas exchange
Type 2 alveolar cells
secrete pulmonary surfactant
lipid/protein mixture needed for life, prevents collapsation
What is the thin sheet of skeletal muscle that’s part of the respiratory system? Why is it important for respiration?
diaphragm
flattens when contracts to enlargen the volume of the thorax
What binds the thoracic cavity? What is contained in the thoracic cavity?
thoracic vertebrae
ribs
intercostal muscle
sternum
heart
lungs
trachea
esophagus
blood vessels
nerves
lymphatic structures
What are the 3 basic processes of respiration? Where do they occur?
pulmonary respiration
atmosphere to trachea
external respiration
occurs in the lungs at the alveoli level
internal respiration
occurs all over the body in cells
What is considered the inspiration/expiration phase of respiration? What composes these 2 parts?
pulmonary ventilation
inspiration is inhaling, requires greater effort
expiration is exhaling, can be passive or active
What are the 4 types of breathing? What do these look like?
eupnea
quiet breathing that occurs at rest
diaphragmatic
deep breathing
costal breathing
intercostals are engaged
shallow breathing that occurs when there is pain
hyperpnea
forced breathing that occurs when activity is happening at rest
How is gas exchanged in the alveoli?
through simple diffusion
according to concentration gradient
O2 from air–>alveoli–>blood
CO2 from blood–>alveoli
Deoxygenated blood enters lungs via ________ and oxygenated blood returns to left side of the heart via ________.
pulmonary arteries
pulmonary veins
What are the 3 types of pressure necessary for ventilation? Describe each.
atmospheric pressure
pressure from weight of atmospheric air on objects
intra-alveolar pressure
pressure inside alveoli
equal to atmospheric due to constant air flow
intrapleural pressure
pressure from outside lungs within thoracic cavity
less than atmospheric pressure
What are the factors that affect respiratory cycles?
body size
age
condition
excitement
environmental temperature
pregnancy
degree of filling of digestive tract
state of health
gestation
What = one respiration? What are some differences between sexes? Size of animal?
inspiration+expiration
females faster than males
smaller faster than larger
immature faster than mature
What are the 2 types of ways to remove solid particulate inhaled into the lung?
upper respiratory tract clearance (cough)
alveolar clearance (absorb)
What are the 4 methods of alveolar clearance?
phagocytized by macrophages
passing into interstitial space
dissolved and transported by blood/lymph
sequestered by connective tissue
causes loss of alveolar tissue
