Exam 3 Flashcards
What is the CLARITY method?
The brain is suspended in gel to make it transparent. Any fluorescent antibodies that were added then glow. Thus, you can see whole 3D structures in the brain.
Dead tissue.
Non-humans because of technology limitations. Assesses structural information.
What is the computed tomography (CT) method?
Different X-rays take structural pictures of the brain in different planes and then a computer comes back with a whole image.
Alive, whole organism.
Mostly done on humans because of technology limitations.
Assesses structural information.
What is the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) method?
Measures the magnetic resonance of H+ as water is transported throughout the brain and changes. Comes up with a structural picture.
Alive, whole organism.
Mostly done on humans.
Assess structural information.
In what ways is MRI better than CT?
More high-resolution images. Does not use X-rays which can be dangerous.
What is Positron Emission Tomography (PET)?
Uses radioactive labeled substances and can label different parts of the brain based on blood flow and metabolism of that area.
Living whole organisms.
Done on humans.
Examines activity.
What is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?
Measures the magnetic resonance of HbO and changes when it gives off an O. Thus, can detect which brain area is getting more O2 and thus blood flow.
Living whole organisms.
Done on humans.
Examines activity.
What are Nissl stains?
They stain for the soma of nuclei. They don’t have high resolution but you can count all the neurons in a given area because all the neurons are stained.
Dead tissue.
Done in humans and non-humans.
Examines structure.
What are Golgi stains?
They stain some neurons but in high resolution, getting all the neurites as well.
Dead tissue.
Done in humans and non-humans.
Examines structure.
What are microarrays?
Typically DNA microarrays, there is a plate with a bunch of different labeled DNA. If the RNA or DNA from the sample is complementary to the DNA then it will glow and you know the match.
The sample must start alive to get the sample.
Done on humans and non-humans.
Measures gene expression activity.
What are transgenic mice?
They are mice that have been genetically altered. These can include knockout mice.
A genetic test.
Only done in non-humans.
Manipulates the brain to do something.
What are Cre/LOX mice?
Like GAL4/UAS, but this system cuts out genes that are surrounded by LOX sequences. Can target gene knockout to different tissues.
A genetic test.
Only done in non-humans.
Manipulates the brain to do something.
What is GAL4/UAS?
A very versatile genetic system to overexpress or knockout different genes in different tissues.
A genetic test.
Only done in non-humans.
Manipulates the brain to do something.
What are artificial membranes?
They are a model system to test for permeability of different substances and how Vm can change as a result.
What is the difference between intracellular recording and extracellular recording?
Both record Vm. Intracellular recording has the electrode on the inside while extracellular recording has the electrode on the outside.
Done to living tissue.
Done in humans and non-humans.
Examines activity.
What is optogenetics?
Expressing light-sensitive channels in the brain to manipulate brain activity. The channels are typically excitatory or inhibitory light-sensitive ion channels.
A genetic test.
Only done in non-humans.
Manipulates the brain to do something.
What is the difference between voltage clamping and patch clamping?
Voltage clamping is less specific and it just records Vm at the membrane. Patch clamping is more specific and it isolates a piece of membrane and can analyze the structure of proteins there at different voltages.
Done to living tissue.
Done in non-humans.
Examines activity.
What is 3DEM?
3D Electron Microscopy. Assesses the structure of different areas at a very high resolution.
Dead tissue.
Only done in non-humans because of technology limitations at the moment.
Assesses structure.
What is immunohistochemistry?
Immunohistochemistry adds different labeled molecules and then their location is visualized under a microscope. BrdU stains DNA while proteins have a system of 2 antibodies where the secondary antibody has the fluorescent tag.
Can start in alive or dead tissue. Depends on the test.
Done to humans and non-humans.
Examines activity.
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH)
Uses a complementary RNA strand for the target RNA..
Done in dead tissue.
Done to humans and non-humans.
Examines activity.
What is MEG?
Like EEG but with magnets. Keeps a higher temporal resolution but has a better spatial resolution than EEG.
Living, whole organisms.
Done to humans.
Assesses activity.
What is EEG?
Assess electrical signals. Has a high temporal resolution but not a great spatial resolution.
Living, whole organisms.
Done to humans.
Assesses activity.
What is microiontophoresis?
Assesses the postsynaptic response of a NT. NT is placed in the cleft as the Vm response is recorded.
Alive tissue.
Must do while in alive tissue but can be done to humans and non-humans.
Manipulates the brain to do something.
What is the ligand-binding method?
Assesses the effect a receptor has before the real NT ligand is found. Uses different drug ligands to see what the effect in the cell is.
Alive tissue.
Must do while in alive tissue but can be done to humans and non-humans.
Manipulates the brain to do something.
What are neuropharmacological analyses?
Assesses the effects of different drugs on the nervous system. Can also distinguish receptor structure and receptor subtypes.
Alive tissue.
Done in humans and non-humans.
Manipulates the brain to do something.
What is CRISPR?
A genetic method that can alter genes.
Alive tissue.
Only done in non-humans.
Manipulates the brain to do something.
How are primary antibodies for immunohistochemistry made?
They are made by injecting the antigen into an animal and the animal makes antibodies for the antigen.
What are microelectrodes/ECog?
They are like miniEEGs in the brain. Can be done in humans but they are very invasive. Done in living whole organisms. Examines activity.
What are IEGs?
Immediate early genes. These can be stained with immunohistochemistry. Shows which neurons were active before the subject died.
What is declarative memory?
It is focused in the hippocampus and is mostly semantic and episodic memory.
What is semantic memory?
Memory of facts.
What is episodic memory?
Memory of stories/events from life.
What is working memory?
Working memory is located in many places, one of them being the prefrontal cortex.
The memory is not being consolidated yet and the neurons have to stay active for the memory to stay on the mind.
What is habituation?
Responding less to signal as the brain learns it doesn’t mean anything.
How was habituation tested in Aplysia?
Continuing to touch the siphon until the gill reflex decreased.
What is a molecular mechanism for habituation?
Inactivating Ca2+ channels.
What is sensitization?
A stronger response to a stimulus than normal.
How was sensitization tested in Aplysia?
Shocking the tail, and then touching the siphon.
Shocking the tail makes the siphon neuron more sensitive.
What is a molecular mechanism for sensitization?
Serotonin → G protein → adenylyl cyclase activated → cAMP → PKA → K+ channels locked for longer. This leads to a higher Ca2+ influx.
What is classical conditioning?
Pairing stimuli together so that a response happens to the now conditioned stimulus.
What is the conditioned stimulus?
The stimulus that is the new one being associated with the US.
What is the unconditioned stimulus?
The stimulus that evokes a response without any association.
What is the conditioned response?
The response to the CS after pairing.
What is the unconditioned response?
The response to US.
In classical conditioning training, which stimulus is presented first, CS or US?
CS.
How was classical conditioning tested in Aplysia?
Touching the siphon, shocking the tail, and then touching the siphon.
Which leads to a stronger response: Sensitization or classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning.
What is a molecular mechanism for classical conditioning?
One molecular mechanism for this is that there is more cAMP and PKA production and activation of calcium-calmodulin which is an enhancer for adenylyl cyclase and a longer-term protein.
The G protein is still vital to adenylyl cyclase’s activation so serotonin release is needed during pairing training.
What is instrumental/operant conditioning?
Learning a behavior in response to reward and punishment.
What is procedural memory?
Habit and muscle memory.
Where does procedural memory consolidated?
In motor areas of the brain such as the cerebellum and basal ganglia.
What are the main functions of the hippocampus?
The pairing of arbitrary ideas
Transivity
Consolidation
Spatial memory
Does all consolidation happen in the hippocampus?
No. The hippocampus does a lot of declarative memory consolidation but nondeclarative memory consolidation and memories related to specific sensory modalities take place in different parts of the brain.