exam 3

Question 1

Intelligence - define

• entity theory
• incremental theory

Answer 1

the ability to think, understand, reason, and adapt to overcome obstacles (current definition)

• Focusses on complex thinking – memory, attention, comprehension, problem solving, reasoning, accumulation of knowledge
• Difficult to measure – many types and definitions
• Most of general public does not have a specific definition

Entity theory – belief that intelligence is fixed; relatively difficult or impossible to change
o People are less likely to try and change intelligence levels – these peoples’ performances will level out and not adjust

Incremental theory – belief that intelligence can be shaped by experience, practice, and effort
o Theory you believe will influence your performance – these peoples’ performances see an increase

Question 2

measuring intelligence

1. anthropometric
2. stanford-binet
3. wechsler

Answer 2

1. Anthropometric approach – Francis Galton
   a. those with superior sensory abilities are more intelligent – able to take in and learn more about the world
   - based on the idea that we learn and interact with our environment through senses and make decisions based on sensory info
   b. anthropometric – methods for measuring physical and mental variation between humans
   c. Darwin’s cousin – similar ideas
   - Eminence – intelligence is genetically determined
   d. Criticisms
   - Correlation tests weakly (if ever)
   - Scores on sensory tests did not predict academic success
2. Stanford-Binet test – originally created by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon
   a. Measures mental age – average intellectual ability score for children of a specific age; measures complex thinking processes
   - Initially well-intentioned – lower scoring students would receive extra help; beneficial
   - Intelligence was not ‘fixed’ – used to improve abilities
   - Criticism – at what age is peak intelligence
   b. Later adapted by Lewis Terman (Stanford University in USA)
   - Test used to measure ‘innate’ levels of intelligence
   - Scores represented a fixed mental capacity – cannot improve or decrease intelligence
   c. Intelligence quotient
   - Mental age/chronological age x 100 = IQ (Standard = 100)
   - Does not generalize to older adults
   Ex. 80yr old man with 40yr old mental age = 40/80 x 100 = 50
   - Deviation IQ – compares a person’s IQ scores with the average score of the same group (corrects for older groups)

Galton & Stanford-Binet – only one score; not beneficial or effective way of determining intelligence

3. Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale (WAIS) – most commonly used today for adolescents and adults; acknowledges multiple forms of intelligence
   a. Accounts for different types of intelligence and different factors – better for separating processes that form an overall IQ score
   b. 2 components
   - General ability
   - Cognitive proficiency

Question 3

cultural bias in intelligence testing

• why are they biased
• how they’ve been made more sensitive
• difficulty with designing sensitive tests
• stereotype threat

Answer 3

‘classical’ IQ tests – criticized for cultural bias
o Different cultures, social classes, educational levels, primary language – can negatively effect IQ score yet are unrelated to intelligence
o Francis Galton, Lewis Terman, and others – used IQ scores to justify eugenics and forced sterilization

Making tests more culturally sensitive
o Raven’s progressive matrices – intelligence is based on picture instead of words

Difficult/impossible to design unbiased tests
o Despite efforts – consistent differences between ethnic and minority groups remain
No scientific evidence to support ethnic superiority – concludes bias
o Process of testing is inherently biased (ex. uni students are used to it, will score higher)
o Stereotype threat – negative stereotypes about a group causes group members to underperform; self-definition causes person to behave a certain way

Question 4

General Intelligence

Answer 4

Charles Spearman – ‘general intelligence’; very broad

Noticed correlation between schoolchildren’s grades in different subjects
- Led to hypothesis of ‘general intelligence factor (g)’

G = mental energy

• High ‘g’ – you will be good in all subjects; high g is more intelligent overall
• Correlated with – academic success, longevity, improved decision making and self-control, psychological well-being, income, relationship success
• Suggests that some people’s brains are more powerful than others
• Also associated with more efficient neuronal transmission – allows more efficient processing overall (well oiled; don’t have to work as hard to figure something out)

Frames intelligence as a basic cognitive trait
- Ex. learning, reasoning, and problem solving abilities

Not ‘fixed’ – can be adjusted

G does not account for all types of intelligence

Spearman later adjusted to 2-factor theory of intelligence

1. G = general intelligence
2. S = skill based, specific intelligence (task specific intelligence)
   - Ex. intelligence required to solve rubrics cube
   - Ex. verbose – well expanded vocabulary

Question 5

7 primary mental abilities

Answer 5

Louis Thurston – 7 primary mental abilities (multiple intelligence); more narrowed than ‘g’ and different correlations

Factor analysis – statistical test

i. Fluency – ability to produce speech
ii. Verbal comprehension
iii. Numeric ability
iv. Spatial visualization
v. Memory
vi. Perceptual speed
vii. Reasoning

Groups what types of questions participant got right to determine how they’re grouped together and what kinds of intelligence are related to each other (‘go together’)

Question 6

hierarchal model of intelligence

Answer 6

Related to schemas – categorization related to levels of specificity
i. Primary intelligence – within overarching general intelligence
ii. Task specific/low level abilities – groups within primary abilities
Ex. high numeric abilities – good at math and doing your own taxes

Question 7

fluid and crystallized intelligence

Answer 7

(within ‘g’)

Differing types and functions

1. Gf – fluid intelligence
   - Used in learning new info and solving new problems – moves/adapts/works around new info (‘fluid’)
   - Not based on previous knowledge
   - Declines with age – mental flexibility
   - Ex. geometric puzzles
2. Gc – crystallized intelligence
   - Uses past learning and experience
   - Remains relatively stable with age
   - More rigid and fixed
   - Ex. vocabulary tests

Neither is better or worse – each has value

i. Greater Gf may contribute to greater Gc over time
ii. Difficult to measure Gf while controlling for Gc – Gf is difficult to measure with tapping into Gc; you’d have to create a completely novel situation

Question 8

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

Answer 8

7 independent forms of intelligence
- Have been updated to include more than 7

Influenced by case studies involving savants and patients with brain damage

i. Savants – individuals with low mental capacity in most domain but extraordinary abilities in other areas (ex. music, math, art)
- Lots of case studies with autistic individuals – incredible proficiency in music and math
- General intelligence is lower with traditional tests – should acknowledge their abilities in other areas

Variability in ability and talent – suggests intelligence isn’t a single ability
i. Considers skill an intelligence – ex. body/kinesthetic intelligence; musical/rhythmic intelligence (ex. intelligence in sporting activities)

Criticized by some as falsifiable, lacking operational definition

i. Some types of intelligence are extremely difficult to test (ex. existential intelligence)
ii. You must be able to prove it’s not true in some areas in order to prove it’s true in other areas

Question 9

biological components of intelligence

• genetics
• brain size

Answer 9

1. Genetics

Twin and adoption studies

• Genetic similarities contribute to intelligence test scores
• As genetic relatedness increases, so does similarity in IQ scores
• Identical twins raised apart – IQs highly correlated (approx. .80); Suggests genes contribute to intelligence

Heritability (0-1) – the degree to which individual differences in a population are due to genetic differences
- Heritability for intelligence – 40-80% (broad range)
• Differ cross culturally – heritability values of the same behaviour differ depending on culture and geographic location
- Must consider contributing factors – this is why heritability has a broad range

Behavioural genomics – examines how specific genes interact with the environment to influence behaviour (ex. intelligence)
- >50 genes have been shown to be related to intelligence scores; Not a 1 to 1 relationship – small single contribution from each, but when combined have a larger influence on cognitive ability
- Types of studies
a. Gene knockout (KO) studies – removal of specific genes in an animal and observation of associated behaviour
Ex. removed of a specific gene implicated in learning of spatial layouts; water maze with rats
b. Transgenic animal studies – insertion of genetic material into animal
Ex. manipulation of gene that encodes NMDA nt receptor (important for learning and memory); Inserting into rat in water maze test improves animals learning and memory

Brain size – are bigger brains more intelligence

a. Witelson et al. (2006) – compared brain sizes of decreased individuals with their WAIS test scores
- 36% of variation in verbal intelligence scores accounted for by brain size
- True for women and right handed men
- Right handed people – go to places in left side of brain
- There are asymmetries in left and right handed people – could contribute to results
- Brain size did not account for variability in visuospatial intelligence
b. Surface area of the brain (gyri and sulci) strongly related to intelligence
- Greater cortex folding in elephants, dolphins, primates – more developed social intelligence

Question 10

environmental factors to intelligence

& the Flynn Effect

Answer 10

Animals raised in physically and socially stimulating environments demonstrate faster learning, enhanced brain development
o Rats raised with toys, ladders, tunnels – grew 5% larger cerebral cortices and contained 25% more synapses (more important?)

Intelligence and birth order – evidence suggests birth order associated with (small) differences in IQ
o First born IQ > second born > third born
More 1 on 1 attention
Opportunity to teach younger siblings – deeper processing of information

Socioeconomic status – higher positive correlation
a. Children from higher SES families:
- Exposed to larger and richer vocabulary
- Receive more support in favour of intellectual pursuits and development
- More interaction with parents
- More access to computers and literature
- More opportunity for learning experiences outside the home
- Less punishment from parents
b. Broader inequalities – nutrients, stress, and education play a role in IQ gap
i. Nutrition
• Diets high in saturated fats – decline in cognitive function
• Diets low in saturated fats and high in fruits, veggies, fish, and whole grains – higher cognitive functioning
(Other factors – often from higher SES group, other influences involved)
• Avon longitudinal studies of parents and children – type of diet early in life can influence scores later in life
ii. Stress
• Increased stress -> increased cortisol -> poorer cognitive functioning
• High levels of stress impairs working memory
• Prefrontal cortex & hippocampus impaired by chronic stress
iii. Education
• Access to quality education
• Attending school is positively associated with IQ scores

The Flynn effect – steady population level increase in intelligence test scores over time
o Negative flynn effect – currently seeing increase in IQ scores stalling; possibly reversed in some areas of the world
- Could be due to technological stage of advancement
- Testing and opportunities have increased and changed
- Not necessarily a fair comparison – we don’t need to ‘panic’ about ‘stalling’ IQs

Question 11

behavioural components of intelligence

Answer 11

Behaviours to boost intelligence
o ‘brain healthy’ diet
o Managing stress
o Engage in active learning

Brain training apps – reviews suggest effects are limited (if any), do not generalize to other tasks; only really benefit ability to play that game
o Ex. luminosity, peak, elevate, fit brain trainer, cognito

Nootropic drugs (pronounced ‘no-oh-tropic’) – substances that are believed to boost intelligence

a. Effects
- Increased arousal, alertness (Ritalin, Provigil)
- Influence nt activity
- Stimulate nerve growth
b. May not necessarily influence intelligence; does influence ability to do certain tasks (being more alert and focussed)
- Not a long term benefit
- Artificial manipulation will effect brain activity – not always good even if it helps short term
- Benefit of messing with natural chemistry must out weight alternatives – used for learning disorders

Question 12

developmental psych

Answer 12

study of human physical, cognitive, social, and behavioural characteristics across the lifespan
o There are distinct patterns in behaviour at different ages and phases of life

Question 13

research designs/methodology in developmental studies

Answer 13

Cross sectional design – measures and compares samples of people at different ages at a given point in time (large group of people with varying ages)
o Less expensive and quicker
o May be subject to Cohort effects – differences between people resulting from the time period in which they were born (ex. tech advances, cultural changes); Will need to control for this

Longitudinal design – follows development of the same set of individuals through time
o More expensive and time consuming
o May be subject to attrition – participants dropping out of the study
o Controls for cohort effect

Question 14

stages in utero

Answer 14

Germinal stage (conception – 2 weeks)

• Sperm fertilize egg and forms zygote
• Zygote beings and continues to divide, travels down fallopian tubes
• Zygote implants in lining of the uterus (now a ball of cells/blastocyst)
• Blastocysts splits into 1 embryo (becomes fetus) and a placenta (supplies fetus with o2, nutrients, and removes waste)

Embryonic stage (2 weeks – 8 weeks) 
-	Embryo begins developing major physical structures – heart and NS, beginning of arms, legs, hands, and feet 

Fetal stage (8 weeks – birth)

• Skeletal, organ, and NS become developed and specialized
• Muscles develop and mvmt begins
• Sleep/wake cycles begins
• Senses become fine tuned – fetus becomes responsive to external cues

Question 15

fetal brain development

• stages
• vulnerability

Answer 15

Stages

• Germinal stage (conception – 2 weeks) – nerve cells develop; a layer of specialized cells fold to create the neural tube that eventually develops into brain and spinal cord
• 4 weeks – forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain divisions are observable
• 7 weeks – spinal cord development allows mvmt, strengthening and coordination of limbs
• 11 weeks – cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum and brain stem have all developed
• 7 months – cerebral cortex folds and ridges; myelin builds around developing nerve cells
• 9 months (birth) – brain is approx. 25% the size and weight of an adult brain; Approx. 100 billion neurons – most connections in brain have not been established yet

Fetal brain is vulnerable to potentially harmful environmental influences during development
a. Malnutrition during fetal stage – can cause underdeveloped prefrontal cortices and other areas related to self control
• Higher probability of attention deficit disorders, and impaired emotional control
b. Teratogens – substances that impair developmental processes
• Drugs, alcohol, tobacco, environmental toxins

Question 16

central NS development

Answer 16

Myelination of axons – begins prenatally; occurs rapidly through infancy and childhood

• Myelination of sensorimotor systems contributes to voluntary motor control (ex. picking up objects, standing, balancing, walking) – before, just moving for the sake of moving
• Diseases that affect myelination – impaired coordination of voluntary mvmt (MS)

Increasing neuronal efficiency – connections between neurons (contributes to purposeful mvmt and recognition)
a. Synaptogenesis – forming of new synaptic connections
• Connections we continue to use will become solidified
b. Synaptic pruning – loss of weak nerve cell connections
• Connections that are not used are lost

Question 17

sensory and motor development in infancy

Answer 17

will initially only take in sensory info; will eventually start to use sensory info to navigate the world

Sensory
a. Taste and olfactory systems are well developed at birth
b. Newborns show preference for familiar stories, mother’s voice – suggests babies listen to outside sounds from inside the womb
• Study with pacifier – will suck harder when hearing a story told by mother that they heard in the womb
c. Visual system not as well developed at birth
• Newborns have approx. 1/40th the visual acuity that adults have and can only see distances about 30cm away
• Visual acuity becomes comparable by 6 months,
• By 8 months infants can perceive shapes and objects as well as adults
• Newborns prefer to look at stimuli that look like faces
Study - Showing newborn 3 pictures – will spend the most time looking at the picture with a face on it
Survival mechanism? (attachment of infant to mother)

Motor

• Babies who have had some experience crawling demonstrate an understanding of depth perception and danger
• ‘visual cliff’ – drop off is covered by glass; observes what stage babies recognize that they would fall

Question 18

motor development in the first year

Answer 18

Reflexes – involuntary muscle reactions to specific types of stimuli; Help newborns and infants perform basic movements required for survival (ex. feeding)
• Rooting reflex – turning head in the direction of stimuli at corner of the mouth (helps finding food)
• Moro reflex – reaching out of arms, followed by hugging motion; grimacing (trying to hold onto something and maintain stability)
• Grasping reflex – clenching of hand in response to stimulation of the brain (feeling something on palm will cause hand to close)
• Stepping reflex – straightening of leg in anticipation of pressure on the sole of the foot (prepares for walking)

Born unable to do most things but we have reflexes hardwired into us to put together coordinated mvmts – helps us develop later in life

Different stages – holding head up, rolling, lifting up on arms, sitting up, crawling, walking
- Some babies skip steps (bum scootch instead of crawling)

Question 19

cognitive development and sensitive period during infancy to childhood

Answer 19

Cognitive development – study of changes in memory, thought, and reasoning processes that occur throughout the lifespan

Sensitive period – period of time in development during which exposure to specific types of environmental stimulation is needed for normal development of a specific ability

• ex. language acquisition, depth perception, balance, parent recognition, identifying with a particular culture
• it is harder to learn languages now because we learned first on during sensitive period of language acquisition

Question 20

Jean Piaget

Answer 20

studied, tested, and measured his own children as they grew; interested in how children think and reason

learning involves 2 central processes in which you learned things about the world
o Assimilation – fitting new info into a belief system you already possess
o Accommodation – creative process whereby people modify their belief structures based on new experiences

Not 100% accurate for everyone – still applicable as children do generally transition through these 4 stages

May have underestimated the extent of infants cognitive abilities

a. Post Piaget studies have used habituation-dishabituation responses to study infants’ cognitive abilities
- Habituation – decrease in responding with repeated exposure to an event
- Dishabituation – increase in responding with presentation of new stimulus
- Method – where and for how long an infant looks provides info about their ability to differentiate stimuli, preferences for certain stimuli
b. Core knowledge hypothesis – infant are born with abilities to understand key aspects of their environment; suggests innate ability to understand certain stimuli without having to learn relationships
- Differ than reflexes – unconscious motor movements
- Ex. Infants only 2 days old demonstrate preference for the congruent traits (number of sounds = number of shapes) – spend more time looking at the screen with the same number of shapes as sounds as they’re hearing (Dishabituation)
c. Must be cautious when making conclusions about mental processes that cannot be confirmed by the individual

Question 21

Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development

Answer 21

1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
   a. Infants thoughts about the world are based on immediate sensory and motor exploration
   i. Ex. seeing, touching, grabbing, mouthing
   ii. ‘out of sight, out of mind’

b. Object permanence – ability to understand that objects exist even when they are not being perceived; occurs at the end of this stage

2. Preoperational (2-7 years)
   a. Focussed on language development, symbol use, pretend play

b. Children understand object permanence
i. Lack abstract thinking – they don’t have experience or foundation to interact with abstract concepts

c. ‘scale errors’ – a child understands what something is but not in other contexts (ex. showing a toy car; may try to fit into the car because they associate cars with something we drive around in)
i. We see children make typical mistakes (ex. scale errors)

d. Children can count and use numbers, but can’t mentally manipulate this information (ex. conservation)
i. Conservation – knowledge that the quantity or amount of an object is not the same as the physical arrangement and appearance of that object
- Ex. liquid in taller beaker is more; more spread out pennies equates to larger quantity
- May be due to child’s misinterpretation of the task – more recent research
- Not necessary ‘conservation’ issue – understand tasks better with M&Ms if they get to eat them after (picking larger pile)

3. Concrete operational (7-11 years)
   a. Children develop logical thinking and number manipulation skills
   i. Still lack abstract thinking

b. Now able to problem solve and reason about logical concepts – logical operations must conform to their previous experiences and beliefs
i. Ex. transitivity property – if I have more M&Ms than my brother, but my sister has more M&Ms than me, then my sister also has more M&Ms than my brother
- More difficulty with abstract versions: A > B, C < B = A > C

4. Formal operational (11- adults)
   a. Development of advanced cognitive processes such as abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking
   i. Ex. algebra, scientific thinking, transitivity problems with abstract variables (A>B, C<b>C), creating hypotheses and theories
   </b>

Question 22

attachment in social development

• monkey study

Answer 22

Attachment – the enduring emotional bond formed between individuals (ex. infants and caregivers)

Originally thought to be motivated by purely biological drives (for survival)

Harry Harlow’s monkey

• Constructed 2 ‘mothers’ – 1 was wire and chain, the other had cloth; food for baby would come from both cloth and chain ‘mother’
• Monkey spent more time with cloth mother regardless of who provided food (when it wasn’t eating)
• Study suggested attachment is motivated by feelings of security and comfort rather than biological survival drives
• Biological – would suggest monkey spent time with mother who gave food

Question 23

Strange situation test - attachment types

Answer 23

Strange situation test (Ainsworth, 1978) – measures (human) infant attachment; mother would bring child to new room, mom leaves and is replaced by stranger, mom returns

Attachment styles

1. Secure attachment
   - Child occasionally ‘checks in’ with parents while exploring
   - Child shows some distress when parent leaves, avoids stranger
   - Child seeks comfort from parent when they return
2. Insecure attachment – 2 types
   a. Anxious/ambivalent
   - Child exhibits ‘clingy’ behaviour rather than explore on their own
   - Child is very upset when parent leaves, fearful towards stranger
   - Child seeks comfort when parent returns but also resists (upset for leaving)
   b. Avoidant
   - Child appears to not need parent
   - Child is unconcerned when parent leaves, unconcerned by stranger
   - Child does not seek contact when parent returns
3. Disorganized attachment (4th discovered by Main & Solomon, 1990)
   o Instability
   o Inconsistent behaviour towards parent – views parent as a source of fear and comfort
   o Switching between seeking closeness, resisting comfort, and freezing

Does not indicate the cause – not always due to abuse or neglect

Question 24

self-awareness in social development

Answer 24

ability to recognize ones individuality; begins developing at birth

Young children start off as egocentrically focussed, considering only their perspective

Eventually demonstrates ‘theory of mind’ – able to understand that other people have thoughts, beliefs and perspectives that may be different from our own
- Arises as children begin to understand and interpret their own internal mental or emotional states, and can then attribute mental states to others

Question 25

Erik Erikson

Answer 25

8 stages of psychosocial development

• based on conflict between 2 motivations

Question 26

Childhood stages (8)

Answer 26

1. Infancy: trust vs mistrust – developing a basic sense of security
2. Toddlerhood: autonomy vs shame – exercising their will as an individual
   a. Guilt over not being able to do it on their own; very stubborn in this stage
3. Early childhood: initiative vs guilt – testing boundaries, responsibility of actions
   a. Initiative to do what they want but also recognizing the consequences
4. Childhood: industry vs inferiority – active engagement, goal achievement
   a. If we can’t do something that others can – upsets them and they will continue until they achieve ability to do new tasks

Question 27

adolescent stages (8)

Answer 27

5. Adolescence: identity vs role confusion – establishing sense of self and attachment to certain social groups

a. Peer groups – common social and behavioural interests, goals, conventions
i. Social exclusion – accompanied by feelings of shame, worthlessness, inferiority; can make it difficult for one to establish an identity

b. Romantic relationships
i. shift in attachment needs from safety and security to physical and emotional intimacy

Question 28

puberty in adolescents

Answer 28

beings approx. 11 (girls) and 13 (boys)

Hypothalamus – pituitary gland – release of hormones (estrogen, testosterone) – development of primary and secondary sex characteristics
o Primary sex traits – changes in body directly related to reproduction
o Secondary – changes to body not related to reproduction (pubic hair and breasts)

Release of hormones associated with major changes in the brain & extreme emotional experiences

Question 29

emotional regulation in adolescence

Answer 29

decision making are still developing; reward systems are developed and in place

Adolescents are more likely to participate in impulsive and risky behaviour
o Glorification of high-risk behaviour
o Peer pressure
o Independence from parental supervision
o Cognitive control systems (ex. prefrontal cortex) are still developing, despite fully developed reward systems (presence of other adolescents/with their friends can reduce activity in frontal lobes, leading to riskier behaviours)

Question 30

moral development in adolescence

Answer 30

– learning right and wrongs

Ex. trolley is going down the tracks towards 5 people – do you pull the lever and kill one person (Kohlberg)

3 stages
o Preconventional morality – characterized by self interest; you don’t want to be involved/get in trouble
o Conventional morality – social conventions and rules; I would not because it’s illegal to kill and I would be violating the law
o Postconventional morality – rules and laws are relative; abstract principles of right and wrong; I would flip the switch because you would save 5 people over the one; no longer afraid to implicate themselves or break the rules

Basis of moral decision making may differ between males and females – Kohlberg did most research with men

Moral reasoning doesn’t necessarily predict actual behaviour
o Knowing something vs feeling that it’s wrong
o Social intuitionist model of morality (Haidt, 2001) – moral decisions based on ‘gut feelings’
o Emotional regulations will have an influence on moral behaviour

Question 31

social development in adolescence

- identity

Answer 31

Identity forming
- Identity – one’s sense of the kind of person they are, what types of people they belong with, and their roles in society; appreciation and expression of one’s attitudes and values

Question 32

emerging adult stages (8)

Answer 32

6. Young adulthood: intimacy vs isolation – establishing and maintaining close relationships
7. Adulthood: generativity vs stagnation – productive engagement in the world

Question 33

3 main areas of personal growth in emerging adulthood

Answer 33

• Relationships – trust, support, establishing intimate connections
  o Losing some relationships and forming new ones
  o Support groups are changing
• New possibilities – freedom to pursue goals and interests
• Personal strength – confidence to overcome life’s challenges

Question 34

physical development in adulthood

Answer 34

relatively minor in early/middle adulthood

Onset of menopause for women (approx. 50 yrs old)
o End on menstrual cycle and reproductive ability
o Reduction of estrogen and progesterone, hot flashes, sleep disruptions, mood changes

Testosterone and sexual motivations decline in men

Question 35

love and marriage in adulthood

Answer 35

On average, being apart of a committed, long-term relationship is associated with – greater health, longer life, increased happiness

However – as of 2004, 40% of marriages end in divorce

Gottman’s “Love lab” - Observations in couples interacting

• Certain behaviours noted as predictive to divorce – up to 94% accurate
• Also measured facial expression, physiological measures (HR, BP)
• 4 horseman of relationship apocalypse
  1. Criticism – focusing on partner’s flaws, expressing disappointment, correcting each with, making neg comments about friends and families
  2. Defensiveness
  3. Contempt – dismissive, eyerolling, sarcastic
  4. Stonewalling – shutting down verbally and emotionally

Parenting and martial satisfaction

• Within 2 years of having children – parents typically report a decline in marital satisfaction
• Decline is larger for high SES parents and young parents
• However – marital satisfaction increases after children leave home as young adults

Question 36

late adulthood stages (8)

& challenges associated with aging

Answer 36

8. Aging: Ego integrity vs despair – focusing on accomplishments vs failures

Challenges associated with aging

• Loss of loved ones
• Health challenges, impaired physical capabilities
• Loss of personal freedoms (ex. driving)

Question 37

happiness in late adulthood

Answer 37

Socioemotional selectivity theory – older adults learn to select more positive and nourishing experiences; more attention to positive experiences
o Participate in activities that emphasize positive emotions and sharing meaningful connections with others

Opportunity for personal growth, reflection, learning, fulfillment and self-actualization

Question 38

structural challenges and functional decline of the brain in late adulthood

Answer 38

• Humans are living longer – more opportunity to learn about the nature of neurodegeneration
• Aging associated with a general reduction of grey and white matter volume in cerebral cortex, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex
• Decline in fluid intelligence (Gf) while Gc remans unimpaired
• More widespread activation when performing a task
  o Compensation for deficits
  o Less inhibitory control
• What appears to be cognitive impairment may actually be the result of ineffective cognitive strategies
  o Forgotten how they ‘typically’ do it – slower

Question 39

motivation

• brain processes

Answer 39

psychological and physiological processes underlying the initiation of behaviours that direct an organism toward a specific goal

What motivates us

• Neuronal level – we must motivate our limb to grab the coffee cup; intention and execution
• Dopamine – involved in being able to execute those mvmts. and processes
• There is a reward associated
• Parkinson’s – difficulty with starting movement; implicated with low dopamine levels

Question 40

homeostasis in motivation

• drive
• incentives
• allostasis

Answer 40

the body’s physiological processes that allow it to maintain consistent internal states in response to the outer environment; controlled by hypothalamus (ex. body temp, blood o2 levels, glucose levels, BP, water volume)

Drive – a biological trigger that tells us we may be deprived of something and causes us to seek our what is needed; feelings that motivate us to reach homeostasis
o ex. hunger increases energy levels; thirst increases water levels

Incentives – stimuli we seek out in order to reduce drives and reach homeostasis
o ex. food and water to decrease hunger and thirst

Allostasis – motivation influenced not only by current needs, but also future needs; anticipatory; our motivational systems make prediction about the resources our bodies will need in response to stress; building up resources in preparation
o ex. stress eating before a big exam – body is providing source of energy
o Definition tends to depend on field being studied – a complex concept

Example: running marathon – low on water levels – increased thirst (drive) – drink water (incentive) – increased water volume – homeostasis maintained – decreased thirst

Question 41

hypothalamus in motivation

Answer 41

nuclei found on the bottom surface of the brain involved in regulating motivation and homeostasis by stimulating the release of hormones throughout the body

Sensitive to changes in glucose – sugar; primary energy source for brain and body

‘on-off’ switch for motivation regulation
o Lateral hypothalamus – activated when we initiate drives (on switch)
o Ventromedial nucleus – off switch for drives and motivations (Damage in mice – will not stop eating)
o Paraventricular nucleus – inhibits the switch that is not needed; so they’re not at the same time; controls which is on and off

Sends message to master gland – pituitary gland – stimulates hormone release

Question 42

hunger and eating in motivation

• why do we love food that’s bad for us

Answer 42

primary example for motivation influencing behaviour

Why do we love food that is bad for us – humans likely evolved to eat high-energy (ex. fatty) foods whenever possible
o We did not used to always have access to high energy food – now, too much creates unhealthy diets
o Body reactions indicate evolutionary aspects that required us to have fatty, high energy foods

Question 43

brain activity related to food

Answer 43

Anterior cingulate cortex – emotional eating; activated when we eat fatty foods
o Expected if we evolved to seek out this type of food

Orbitofrontal cortex – links food taste, texture, with feeling of reward
o Pleasure feelings solidify reward relationships

Dopamine release when craving and tasting food, AND during digestion (2x the reward)

Question 44

cognitive influences related to food

• unit bias
• marketing

Answer 44

• Unit bias – assumptions that the unit of sale or portion size is an appropriate amount to consume
• Marketing – ex. chocolate milk after a workout; cola for breakfast

Question 45

social context when eating

• social facilitation
• impression management
• modelling

Answer 45

Social facilitation – eating more to assume a particular role or meet an expectation; if you’re not hungry but get food anyway;
o Ex. if you’re ‘a man’ and need to ‘bulk’

Impression management – eating less to appear polite
o Ex. women eat less to appear smaller/more dainty

Modelling – eating whatever someone else is eating to ‘fit in’
o Ex. if everyone is eating off appetizer menu, so will you

Question 46

types of disorders of eating

Answer 46

Obesity – energy (food) intake exceeds energy expenditure
- Approx. 60% of Canadian males and 45% of Canadian females are overweight or extremely overweight (2016) – by medical definition

Anorexia nervosa
a. Involves
• Self starvation
• Intense fear of weight gain and body dissatisfaction
• Denial of serious health consequences associated with severely low weight

Bulimia nervosa – characterized by periods of food deprivation, binge eating, and purging

• Marked by tendency to be impulsive
• Individuals with bulimia are more likely to enter treatment programs – probably because there is a more active (puking) process, more noticed by individuals and close friends

Question 47

lifetime prevalence of ED’s

Answer 47

likely underrepresented for both groups; likely more underrepresentation for men

Anorexia 
-	Women - .9% 
-	Men - .3% 
Bulimia 
-	Women – 1.5% 
-	Men .5%

Question 48

EDs and stress

Answer 48

Individuals with eating disorders report higher levels of stress prior to developing the disorder

Perceived loss of control – interacts with depression, guilt, anxiety, low self esteem, and other psychological variables

Evidence that feelings of lacking control and security implication in development of eating disorders

Question 49

social facts of EDs

Answer 49

o May receive positive reinforcement from peers, friends, family – they don’t understand it’s stemming from a disorder
o Social media – influences beauty standards

Question 50

Effects of EDs in the brain

Answer 50

o Individuals with anorexia – increased amygdala activity (feal, emotional arousal) when presented with negative words related to body images
o Women with bulimia – increased activity in medial frontal regions of the brain (related to emotional processing) when presented images of overweight bodies compared to thin bodies
o Women with eating disorders – when shown images comparing themselves to idealized models demonstrate activation in insula (disgust)
o Idealized media depictions of beauty can have negative emotional consequences on vulnerable individuals

Question 51

libido

Answer 51

motivation for sexual activity and pleasure

o Originally developed by Freud – still used today

Question 52

sexual selection and evolutionary psych (intra vs inter)

Answer 52

has been used to justify stereotypes (esp. with gender); be aware

Intrasexual selection – members of the same sex competing for the opportunity to mate with members of the opposite sex
o Evolutionarily advantageous – the more ‘fit’ individuals are more likely to reproduce; strong, smart, successful animals have more opportunity to pass on genes; leads to stronger species

Intersexual selection – members of one sex selecting a mating partner based on their desirable traits
o Typically, male animals attempt to attract the attention of females (there are exceptions – sometimes the female is trying to attract the male)

Research suggests that people tend to prefer potential mates who appear to be healthy – more fertile, possess good genes
o Ex. facial symmetry
o A person may present cues that highlight ‘health’ around potential mates (ex. standing upright, wearing muscle shirts)

Question 53

sexual selection and parental investment

• men & women & differences
• why these differences exist (social and evolutionary)

Answer 53

Both men and women – reported love, kindness, commitment, character, emotional maturity to be important in long term relationships

Sex specific differences
o Women – more likely to value strong financial prospects, status, and good health
o Men – likely value physical beauty, youth, and other characteristics related to reproduction

Evolutionary explanation
o Large amount of resources and commitment required to raise a child – mothers may place higher value on partners offering safety, security, etc.
o Evolutionary impulse to be as reproductively successful as possible – fathers may place higher value on young, healthy, fertile partners; Can have many children with many women – commitment isn’t as important; Health of woman’s gene is more important
o Societal implications – history of gender inequality and other social factors that may create results

Patriarchally dominated – have more access to safety and success than women; if you have not had access to that historically, that will be more important in what you look for in a partner

Question 54

Psychological influences on human sexual behaviour r

Answer 54

Surveys studies of sexual motivation – why have sex?

1500 US college students

4 primary reasons – physical reasons, to attain goals, emotional feelings, feelings of insecurity

reproduction – way down on list

Sexual motivation continues throughout the lifetime

Question 55

Physiological influences on human sexual behaviour

Answer 55

Sexual response cycle: excitement – plateau – orgasm – resolution

Influenced by hypothalamus
o Sexual stimulation – hypothalamus – pituitary gland – oxytocin release (may promote bonding between sexual partners)

Oxytocin – a hormone related to feelings of trust, desire for closeness; lots released after someone has an orgasm; also released after mother gives birth

Question 56

cultural influences on sex

• gender roles
• sexual scripts

Answer 56

Gender roles – accepts attitudes and behaviours of males and females in society; flexible and have changed over time

Sexual scripts – set of rules and assumptions about the sexual behaviours of males and females; varies cross culturally
o Ex. stereotypes male sexual behaviours based on competition; females based on relationship stability
o Sex guilt – negative emotional feelings for having violated culturally accepted standards of appropriate sexual behaviour; violating sexual scripts/gender roles

Scripts and roles are changing – being redefined or removed all together
o Women’s rights movement
o Increased number of women in workforce
o Effective contraception – women allowed more control over their sexual behaviours (Women needing to prioritize resources and commitment due to baby that would ensure – gave women more freedom)

Question 57

sexual orientation

Answer 57

an individual enduring physical, romantic, and/or emotional attraction to members of the same/opposite sex (ex. hetero, gay, bisexual, pan, asexual)

Different than gender identity – internal sense of being female, male, or something else
o Trans – gender identity and/or expression differ from the sex they were assigned at birth
o Dysphoria – anxiety and/or discomfort regarding one’s sex assigned at birth

Explanations
o Evidence suggests prenatal hormones (ex. testosterone) may be involved in determining one’s sexual orientation
o Sexual orientation influenced by natural biological processes involving brain regions found across a number of species

Question 58

Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 58

• social achievement motivation
• humanistic psych (often brought up with Carl Rogers)

Levels – starts at basic needs for survival -> moves upwards to self actualization (physiological, safety, belonging and love needs, esteem needs, cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, self actualization)
o Self-actualization – the point at which a person reaches their full potential as a creative, deep thinking, and accepting human being
o Reaching higher levels = more fulfilling life

Criticisms
o Level by level description is over simplistic
o Biased toward individualistic, Western culture – other cultures, more community

Question 59

affiliation motivation

Answer 59

the need to belong

Key aspects
o Motivation to maintain relationships that involve pleasant feelings – warmth, affection, appreciation, mutual concern for well-being
o Sense of being in a permanent relationship – friendship, within a group
o Loneliness is a risk factor for heart disease, cancer, hypertension, impaired immune system, high stress

Not the same as social interaction – ex. talking to someone on a bus/customers on the phone; does not give the same level of satisfaction

May be related to our fear of dying

• Terror mgmt. theory – suggests human’s fear of mortality motivates behaviour that preserve self-esteem and our sense of belonging (within a culture, or in terms of our ‘world-view’)
• Dealing with anxiety – we feel like we need to be a part of something bigger (culture, community)

Question 60

scientific model of love

Answer 60

Berscheid and Waller (1974) – first scientific model of love; oversimplification of 2 types of love

1. Passionate love – associated with physical and emotional longing for the other person
   - Feelings of passionate love – associated with areas of the brain related to physical reward, and the insula (sensitive to internal bodily feelings)
   - Hot and heavy feelings early in relationships
2. Companionate love – related to tenderness, and the affection felt when lives are connected with another person; influences long-term stability of a relationship
   - Later in the relationship; also felt in non-romantic relationships

Question 61

Love as a goal oriented state

Answer 61

similar to hunger, thirst, sex drives; drives us to find a desirable partner to spend our lives with

Evolutionary benefit – conducive to reproduction and health benefits of being connected to someone

Caudate nucleus – related to experiencing rewards

• Lots of oxytocin receptors – feeling close to; trust
• Dopamine
• Increased activity associated with increasing score on ‘love passion scale’

Question 62

Achievement motivation

• approach vs avoidance

Answer 62

drive to perform at high levels and accomplish significant goals

Approach goals – enjoyable and pleasant incentives that draws a person to a particular behaviour; achieve goals for positive reasons
o Ex. praise, financial reward, feelings of satisfaction

Avoidance goals – attempt to avoid an unpleasant outcome; achieving goals to avoid neg outcomes
o Ex. shame, embarrassment, losing memory, emotional pain

Question 63

self determination theory

Answer 63

an individuals ability to achieve their goals and achieve psychological well being is influenced by the degree of control they have over their behaviours

3 universal needs – involve feeling in control of our life and decisions
o Relatedness – connected to others; meaningful bonds
o Autonomy – feeling in control of your life
o Competence – satisfaction felt when performing a task at a skill level

Self-efficacy – an individuals confidence that they can plan and execute a course of action in order to solve a problem (eg. Perceived competence)

Question 64

extrinsic vs intrinsic motivation

Answer 64

Extrinsic – outside motivation coming in (ex. public embarrassment or pressure)

• You lose autonomy – feelings of success are tied to external validation, not satisfaction in your abilities (happiness is dependant on others views of your abilities)
• Less within our own control – not self-determined therefore it would not lead to high levels of self-actualization

Amotivational – losing all or having very little motivation to perform; could be because you’ve lost sight of your own reasons for doing things

Intrinsic – motivation to master a task because you want to; genuine internal motivation to overcome challenges and perform because you want to and unrelated to outside validation
o Leads to people feeling better about performance and sticking at a goal for longer
o Self determination theory – ties into this theory

Young children

• What kinds of compliments child receives will influence whether they seek external or internal validation/motivation
  a. ‘you must be a hard worker’ – went onto be more intrinsically motivated; they wanted to see if they could do it for themselves
  b. ‘you must be so smart’ – went onto be more extrinsically motivated; wanted to be told they were smart; worried more about performance, lied to seem smarter, gave up easier

The praise/validation people receive – influences extrinsic/intrinsic motivations

Question 65

emotion & 3 components

Answer 65

is a behaviour

3 components
o A subjective thought/experience (ex. sees a spider)
o Patterns of neural activity and physical arousal (ex. facial expression, shiver)
o An observable behavioural expression (ex. emotional facial expression or changes in muscle tension)

Question 66

brain activity in response to stimuli (emotions)

• initial response
• autonomic NS
• reflexive mvmt
• emotional regulation

Answer 66

Initial response
a. Emotion-dependant responses – occur in the brain with approx. 150 ms of sensing a potential threat
- Sensing/reacting is quicker than perceiving/deciding – evolutionary benefit
- Identify its presence – quicker processing
- Doesn’t need to consciously perceive it/recognizing it – slower processing
b. Amygdala – receives sensory input from cortex approx. 200 ms after an emotional stimulus appears
- Amygdala – group of nuclei in the medial portion of the temporal lobe, sensitive to emotional arousing stimuli
- Applies to all emotional stimuli – is especially prevalent in threatening/fearful images and sounds
• Activates sensory areas (ex. visual, auditory cortices) – more attention toward potentially threatening stimulus
• Creates feedback loop – recognizing as fearful stimulus causes sensory areas to focus more attention
- Emotional aspects of image are more salient – makes sense because amygdala causes us to focus on it in emotional context

Autonomic NS reaction (unconscious)
a. Parasympathetic – peace, rest and digest
b. Sympathetic – stress, fight or flight
Reactions
• Eyes – dilated
• Mouth – dry
• Skin – goose bumps
• Palms – sweaty
• Lungs – passages dilated
• Heart – increased HR
• Blood – directed to muscles
• Adrenal glands – increased activity (epinephrine)
• Digestion – inhibited
c. We get these same reactions for modern day stressors (exams, public speaking)

Reflexive movement
o Threatening emotional stimuli – trigger brain areas involved in planning mvmt & regions of the spinal cord (ex. reflexively jumping or moving)

Emotional regulation
Frontal lobes (decisions and exec control) – receives info from the amygdala and other sensory areas
a. Determines if the instinctive emotional response is appropriate
• if so – frontal lobes will generate appropriate behaviour (ex. running)
• if not – frontal lobe will decrease autonomic NS response (SNS); relax again (PSNS)
b. difficulty regulating emotions – it may be harder for some people to decreases SNS; makes them angry and easily triggered; less control and executive function

Question 67

experiencing emotion

• James-lange
• Cannon-bard
• 2 factor theory

Answer 67

which comes first: physiological response (ex. increased HR) or psychological response (ex. feeling afraid)

James-Lange theory of emotion – physiological reactions to a stimulus come before the emotional experience
o Perception of fearful stimulus -> increased HR -> brain receives this feedback -> brain creates feelings of fear
o Supported by facial feedback hypothesis – emotional expressions/facial expressions can influence emotional states; has mixed results
Ex. people report feelings happier when smiling (holding pencil in teeth) compared to frowning

Cannon-bard theory of emotion – brain generates subjective emotional feelings first; representations in the brain trigger physiological responses in the body
o Perception of fearful stimulus -> brain creates feelings of fear -> increased HR

Two factor theory of emotion – the cognitive labels we attach to patterns of physical arousal form the basis of our emotional experiences
o 2 factors
a. Step 1 – physical arousal (ex. increased HR)
b. Step 2 – cognitive label
(Label 1: ‘I’m scared’ OR label 2: ‘I’m excited’)
o Difference between afraid and excited – how we label and define if we’re scared/happy or sad/grateful
Ex.
a. Misattributing emotional arousal
b. Reappraising anxiety as excitement
• Test coming – convincing yourself you’re not anxious, but looking forward to feelings after exam; You remain aroused but it’s more pos than neg
• People walking across bridge either up high or down low with attractive experimenter who gives number; High bridge – more likely to call experimenter; more excitement associated with overall experiences

Question 68

emotional facial expressions and body language

• evolutionary
• differences and similarities cross culturally

Answer 68

Evolutionary explanations
o Feelings of disgust – decreases sensory info being taken in
Ex. nose scrunching (less airflow)
o Feelings of fear – sensory info is increased
Ex. widening of eyes (more visual info), deep inhalation (more airflow)

There are universal, cross cultural recognition of facial expressions and body language

a. Body language
- Light dots – can infer state of person based on movement
- Ex. Sad – head and shoulders down

Also differs cross culturally – display rules, and context
o Emotional dialects – variations in how common emotions are expressed & received
o Display rules – unwritten expectations regarding when it is appropriate to show certain emotions
Ex. not smiling in pictures vs now you’re told to smile
o Interpretation of emotional expressions differ across cultures

When asked to evaluate emotion of central figure
• Westers – tend to evaluate emotion of individual figures in a group
• Asian/Japanese – evaluate emotion of individual in relation to the emotion of whole group; eye tracking suggests Asian participants spend more time looking at each person in the group

Question 69

personality (traits and states)

Answer 69

an individuals pattern of thinking, feeling, behaving; unique to each individual; remains relatively consistent over time and situations (how would someone behave)

Personality traits – specific psychological characteristics that make up a person’s personality; how a person behaves most of the time (applicable to most situations)

Traits vs states
o State – temporary physical or psychological engagement that influences behaviour (catching them on a bad day)

Question 70

approaches to studying personality

Answer 70

Idiographic approach – creating detailed descriptions of a specific person’s unique personality characteristics; constructing a theory of the way someone is and why they behave that way
o Intuitive rather than scientific
o Ex. biographies and criminal profiling

Nomothetic approach – examining personality in large groups of people; grouping and defining based on certain traits and data; making generalizations about personal structure (ex. neuroticism, extraversions, etc)
o What types of people are more or less likely to engage in certain behaviours

Question 71

early trait research

Answer 71

Personality tests/scales/quizzes on behaviour; horoscopes (alignment of stars and celestial bodies); psychic fortune tellers
o Stems from innate need to find an identity
o Still very popular

Beware “Barnum statements” – general statement that would apply to most people so by extension, also applies to you; not distinct enough to distinguish between different people
- Named after PT Barnum – “there’s a sucker born every minute”
- Forer – same description to everyone; everyone related
• Ex. you have a great need for other people to like and admire you; you have a tendency to be critical of yourself; you have doubts about whether you’ve made the right decision

Question 72

contemporary trait research

Answer 72

Factor analysis – technique used to groups items that people respond to similarly; scientifically backed
o Certain people reply to certain questions in characteristic way – able to group them based off their shared answers
o When grouping people – balance between wanting to be descriptive between people and not having too many factor groups

Raymond Cattell – one of the first to work on this; grouped people based on 16 traits (1946)

Question 73

5 factor model

Answer 73

McCrae and Costa (1987) – more recently and most common today

5 Factor Model (FFM) – trait based theory of personality based on finding that personality can be described using 5 major dimensions

Based on questions – technique separates people based on their response to particular questions; creates patterns

Based on continuum – most people fall on scale vs extremes; no inherently good or bad traits; position on scale generalizes a person’s response in a situation

2 important points
o You get a score on each one of the 5 – unrelated categories; one score doesn’t determine your score on another
o Even though it is the ‘gold standard’ and used most predominantly – we didn’t evolve to fit this model, it’s only used as a measurement

5 traits/continuums – OCEAN acronym 
1. Openness 
Low 
•	Prefer to follow rules; conventions 
•	Down to earth 
High 
•	Curious and creative 
•	Artistic 
•	Imaginative 
•	Potentially unconventional and non-conforming 

2. Conscientiousness
   High
   • Organized and efficient; Disciplined and on time
   • Well suited in engineering and accounting
   • May experience higher levels of work related stress
   Low
   • Less organized and detail oriented
   • Casual; potentially unreliable
   • Spontaneous
3. Extraversion – has become very popular with isolation with Covid; some people have enjoyed isolation, some have been negatively impacted
   Low
   • Introverted and reserved
   • Enjoy spending time alone or with less people
   • May avoid high levels of stimulation and social interaction
   High
   • Enjoy socializing
   • Seek attention
   • Assertive, talkative and enthusiastic
   • Prefer high levels of stimulation and excitement
4. Agreeableness
   High
   • Try to please others; try to minimize conflict
   • Conflict resolution may come at a cost to their own wellbeing or success in particular context (ex. in competitive environments)
   • Trusting, supportive, good-natured
   Low
   • Not afraid to disagree; at times uncooperative
   • Competitive
   • Not technically disagreeable – you’re not a ‘nasty’ person
   • Willingness to bend is low

5. Neuroticism 
High 
•	Anxious, insecure 
•	Reacts strongly to negative events 
•	May focus on perceived flaws and injustices 
Low 
•	Secure, confident, stable 
•	Usually good at managing emotions

Question 74

HEXACO model of personality

Answer 74

6 factors; 5 generally replicated FFM

6th factor – honesty and humility
High
- Sincere, honest, modest
- Likely to perform in altruistic, pro-social behaviour
Low
- Deceitful, greedy, pompous
- Selfish, antisocial, sometimes violent
- Strong feelings of importance and entitlement

In this case – there is a good and bad side to be on; low is considered more negative traits
o Due to shift after WWII and Holocaust – ‘what’s the personality of evil’
o Accounts for more moral continuum

Question 75

the dark triad

Answer 75

3 traits believed to be central to understanding the personality of ‘evil’; describe a person who is potentially socially destructive, aggressive, dishonest, and harmful
1. Machiavellianism – tendency to use people, manipulate, deceive
o Lack of respect for others, focused predominantly on their own self-interest
o ‘controlling masses’ – not a reciprocal relationship, but what you can get from others
2. Psychopathy – demonstrating shallow emotional responses, feel little empathy for others
o Enjoy highly stimulated activities – they need to reach a certain threshold of excitation; created via conflict, exerting control, harming others while feeling little remorse
3. Narcissism – egotistical preoccupation with self image and self importance

Question 76

Bob Altyemyer

Answer 76

UofM

Right wing authoritarianism (RWA): a set of personality characteristics that may predispose people to certain violent or anti social tendencies

Question 77

personality in infancy

Answer 77

different temperaments from birth; can be measured immediately and compare patterns with traits later in life

Temperament – behavioural style; how one reacts in particular contexts
- Ex. activity level, mood swings, attention span, distractibility

3 categories of temperament

• Well-adjusted – capable of self control, confident
• Under controlled – impulsive, restless, distractible, emotionally volatile
• Inhibited – socially uncomfortable, fearful, easily upset by strangers; more withdrawn and anxious as adults

Predicts adult personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness), behavioural tendencies, life outcomes
- Less applicable to openness and agreeableness

Question 78

changes in personality

Answer 78

changing environments, social roles, autonomy, physiological development may contribute

Drastic changes still uncommon – comparative relationships stay relatively stable (won’t go to opposite side of spectrum usually)

Trauma can contributes to larger changes (not in notes)

Question 79

social cognitive vs behaviourism

Answer 79

Behaviourism approach – no point in mental life; all learning from experience
o Environment -> behaviour -> consequences -> effects behaviour

Social cognitive approach – how our personalities are influenced by role of environment and different experiences during development
o Reciprocal determinism – personality is an interaction between behaviour, internal (personal/cognitive factors; beliefs expectations, personal dispositions) factors, and external (situational) factors

Question 80

cultural influences to personality testing

Answer 80

Personality tests won’t apply cross culturally – analyzing people based on western ideals

Majority of psych research has involved studying WEIRD people – western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic (ex. undergrad students)

Similarities and differences

a. Big 5 traits – reliably demonstrated worldwide
- Massive study involving 17000 participants, 28 languages, 56 countries on 6 continents (except Antarctica)
b. Response styles – differ cross culturally; characteristic ways of responding
- Ex. places that are encouraged to present themselves positively vs places where it’s arrogant

The scale itself is biased – need to reconsider personality structures using a culture’s native language as questions are influenced by language they’re presented in and how they’re asked
- Different language produced different traits and a different number of traits

Ex. Examination of indigenous Chinese personality traits using personality descriptors (using native language)
a. Identified 26 new personality traits
b. Factor analysis – 4 primary traits
• Dependability (similar to neuroticism)
• Social potency (similar to extraversion)
• Individualism (similar to agreeableness)
• Interpersonal relatedness – different than big 5; could be due to western focus on individual vs eastern focus on community

Question 81

Biological influences of personality

• twin studies and evolutionary roots

Answer 81

Genetics

Twin studies – Minnesota study of twins raised apart

a. Identical twins show stronger correlations for personality than fraternal – even for those raised apart with different environmental influences
- Personalities of adopted parents seem to have no influence on personality characteristics of their adopted children
- Same traits with different environments – generally concludes its genetic
b. 5 traits – show high correlation between identical twins over fraternal
- Suggests high genetic component of personality

Evolutionary roots of personality – reproductive success, environmental changes; finding a suitable partner based on your environment (ex. neuroticism – caution benefitted survival/staying alive)

a. Personality can be measured in animals – variation in behaviours within same habitat equates to personality (ex. fast exploring vs slow)
- Attempts have been made to apply the big 5 to animals – seen in rhinos, primates, hedgehogs, ants
- Additional measures of personality attributed to more animal species – hyenas, octopuses, etc.

Question 82

Personality and the brain

• past and current approaches
• extraversion in the brain
• neuroticism
• openness

Answer 82

Approaches

1. Past approaches
   - humourism – imbalances in particular bodily fluids explained illness and personality
   - phrenology – personality characteristics could be predicted by the shape of one’s skull
2. Current approaches
   - association between personality characteristics and systems within the brain

Extraversion in the brain (most of work has been done with this trait)
a. Brain characteristics
- increase in impulsive behaviour when reward is available – stronger dopamine response to rewarding stimuli
• creates more reward seeking behaviour – finding stimulating activities
- more positive emotions in a range of situations
- less activity in the amygdala (processing novelty, danger, fear)

the arousal theory of extraversion (Hans Eysenck, 1967)
a. extraversion is determined by a person’s threshold for arousal
• high threshold – seek higher amounts of stimulation (extraversion)
ex. only 2 new people is boring, need more people around to get the same excitement
• low – limit stimulation to avoid being overwhelmed (introversion)
b. ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) – system in the brain that plays a central role in controlling arousal response
• less reactive in extroverts – require more excitement to become aroused

the approach/inhibition model of motivation (Jeffrey Gray, 1991)

a. behavioural activation system (BAS)
- ‘go’ system – arousing the person to action in the pursuit of a particular goal
- We wouldn’t be motivated to get anything done
- Responsive to rewards
- Activation associated with extraversion
b. Behavioural inhibition system (BIS)
- ‘danger’ system – motivating the person to action in order to avoid punishment or other neg outcomes
- Activation associated with neuroticism

Neuroticism in the brain
o Dorsomedial prefrontal cortex – regulating emotions
o Hippocampus – control of obsessive negative thinking
o Mid-cingulate gyrus – detecting errors and perceiving pain (physical or emotional); focussing on more negative aspects of an experience

Openness to experience in the brain
o Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex – creativity and intelligence; increased activation
o Greater activation in the brain systems involved in integration of self and environment – not only focussing on your yourself, but you integrated into environment

Question 83

psychodynamic theory

• conscious vs unconscious mind
• 3 forces

Answer 83

Freud

Conscious vs unconscious mind

a. The conscious mind – current awareness
- Everything you are aware of right now
b. The unconscious mind – powerful but inaccessible parts of consciousness; operates without conscious control & influences and guides behaviour
- Includes one’s lifetime memories and experiences

3 forces

1. Id – collection of basic biological drives, including those directed towards sex and aggression, hunger and thirst; lowest level of being
   - Operates according to the pleasure principle – do what brings you pleasure, regardless of the consequences
   - Fuelled by the libido – sexual energy, biological drives
2. Superego – values and moral standards; how we should behave, rather than how we want to
   - Develops as we become socialized – parents, peer groups, society
3. Ego – decision maker; reconciles & compromises opposing urges from the Id and the superego
   - In charge of ‘anxiety defense’

Anxiety – the experiential tension between Id, ego, and superego; ego is trying to reconcile
a. Signals there is a conflict between what you want and what society deems proper
b. Defense mechanisms – unconscious strategies the ego uses to reduce or avoid anxiety; used to alleviate anxiety
o Don’t actually solve problem – often just makes things worse
o Ex. denial (test isn’t that important), displacement (becomes angry at partner because you’re unprepared for test), projection, rationalization, repression, etc.

We want a developed and rational ego – doesn’t just use defense mechanisms

Question 84

5 psychosexual stages of development

Answer 84

learning to channel libido into appropriate forms of self expression

a. Infancy, childhood guided by the Id – ego and superego develop as the child grows up and becomes socialized
b. Fixation – preoccupation with pleasure associated with a particular stage; inadequate regulation or ability to satisfy needs in a particular stage alters behaviour as an adult
- Particular aspect of Id or libido – causes you to fixate on thing that makes you happy; you won’t develop out of it

5 psychosexual stages – getting stuck in any of these stages influences behaviour later in life (fixation on particular pleasure focus)
a. Oral (0-18 months) – actions of the mouth; sucking, chewing, swallowing
• Basic lack of self confidence
b. Anal (18-36 months) – bowel elimination, control
• Anal retentive or anal expulsive personality – obsessively clean or disorganized
c. Phallic (3-6 years) – genitals
d. Latency (6 until puberty) – external activities
e. Genital (puberty to adulthood) – sexual activities with others

Question 85

projective tests

Answer 85

used to explore the unconscious mind; personality tests in which ambiguous images are presented

Responder’s answers are thought to reflect unconscious desires or conflicts

Despite using standardized scoring, generally demonstrate low validity and reliability
- Testing same person later – different answers and scores

Types

• Rorschach inkblot test – subjects asked to describe what they see in an inkblot (ex. If you see particularly violent images)
• Thematic apperception test (TAT) – subjects asked to tell stories about ambiguous depictions of interpersonal situations

Question 86

other voices in psychodynamic perspective

Answer 86

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) – replaced Freud’s pleasure principle with inferiority complex
o Feelings of inferiority – stemming from experiences of helplessness and powerlessness during childhood
o Related to people’s need to feel superior or at least adequate

Karen Horney (1885-1952) – replaced Freud’s emphasis on sex with an emphasis on social and cultural factors 
o	Believed the study of personality should focus on present self rather than the unconscious self 
o	Importance of interpersonal conflict between children and parents in development 

Carl Jung (1876-1961) – analytical psychology 
o	analytical psychology – focuses on the role of unconscious archetypes in personality development 
a. personal unconscious – similar to Freud’s unconscious; collection of experiences and patterns absorbed during a person’s life 
b. collective unconscious – a separate, non-personal type of unconscious; hold the collective memories and mythologies of human ancestry 
•	archetypes – images and symbols that reflect common patterns of experience across all cultures

Question 87

humanistic perspective

Answer 87

carl rogers (1902-1987) – emphasizes the individual’s free will to make choices, positive growth and development
o person centered perspective – people are basically good, and given the right environment, their personality will develop fully and normally
o self actualization – drive to grow and fulfill your potential
o focusses less on negative psychosexual fixations as a child – more positive light in growth, development, and self actualization