Exam 3 Flashcards
Memory stages
encoding, consolidation, retrieval
encoding
code and put into memory, acoustic, visual, sematic
consolidation
maintain in memory
retrieval
recover from memory
sensory memory
briefly holds info for processing, large capacity, about 2 seconds (less for eyes, more for ears), attended STM
immediate memory
stores info for limited time or while manipulating info, 3-5 capacity (from 5-9 or 7 give or take 2), 12-30 seconds w/out rehearsal, attention/rehearsal LTM
working memory
part of STM, when you do thing to what is in your short-term memory
long term memory
what we usually think of as memory, stores information for very long periods of time, very larger storage
part of LTM
- semantic
- episodic
- procedural
a. explicit
b. implicit
semantic ltm
I know that (fact)
episodic ltm
I remember when (episode of life)
procedural ltm
I can do (skill)
- explicit = intentionally try to remember, consciously aware of doing
- implicit = unintentional recognition and influences, priming
rehearsal
The process of repeating information to yourself, helping you “re-hear” the information over again
chunking
A process of arranging information into compact meaningful “chunks” so that they can be more easily rehearsed in immediate memory
ways to improve memory
- rehearsal
- chunking
encoding strategies
massed practice, spacing effect, mnemonics
mnemonic
the study and development of systems for improving and assisting the memory
massed practice
repeated exposure to or study of to-be-remembered information over a very short period of time or without gaps between repetitions
spacing effect
learning is most robust when repeated exposure to or study of to-be-remembered material occurs over a longer timeframe
working memory model
Baddeley
•Specific model of immediate memory
•Central executive = attention
a.Phonological loop = inner voice, stores and manipulates verbal information
b.Episodic buffer = temporary store, link info of visual and verbal
c.Visuospatial sketchpad = inner eye
maintenance rehearsal
shallow, repetition, good for short term, not LTM
elaborative rehearsal
deep, relating new info to old info and memory, mnemonics
kay aspects of memory retrieval
- cues
- free recall
- cued recall
cues
pieces of information in the present that help us remember events from the past, and they are central to remembering
free recall
Remembering previously-learned information without any other context to aid in remembering
cued recall
Remembering previously-learned information with the aid of a clue or information that helps provide context
memory errors
- omission
- commision
- the seven sins of memory
omission
memory errors where info can’t be brought to mind
- Transience
- Absent-mindedness
- Blocking
transcience omission
memories fade, interference theory of forgetting
a. Retroactive interference = new replace olf
b. Proactive = old block new
absent-mindedness omission
not paying attention memory failure
blocking omission
failure to retrieve info available, not enough cues
misattribution commission
deja vu
suggestibility commision
misinformation effect
bias commission
use of schemas
persistence commission
PTSD
misinformation effects
Occurs when incorrect information obtained after an event contaminates our memory of that event
priming effect
introduction of one stimulus influences how people respond to a subsequent stimulus
amnesia
Memory loss due to physical damage or problems in the brain
anterograde amnesia
inability to encode new information into long-term memory
retrograde amnesia
loss of memories prior to a specific traumatic event
HM and the hippocampus
- Had both retrograde and anterograde amnesia
- Gave info of how memory systems organized
- Hippocampus was removed to treat seizures
- Could rehease to remember info
- Gave evidence between immediate and LTM and procedural and semantic
exercise influence on memory
increase B flow to brain, increase neurogenesis in hippocampus to support memory
contact sports influence on memory
harmful, temporary effect on memory
sleep influence on memroy
brain transfers memories from STM to LTM and new synaptic buds form
stress influence on memory
release cortisol impair hippocampus
attribution theory
• When making sense of other’s behavior, we can attribute their behavior to either internal or external causes
- dispositional
- situational
disposition causes
internal, trait-based causes (doesn’t care, usually for others)
situational causes
external, environmental/situational causes (traffic, usually for ourselves)
kelley’s covariation model
Factors help make judgement about behavior, takes time to form
factors of kelley’s covariation model
- consistency = how often
- distinctiveness = in what situations
- consensus = in relation to others
fundamental attribution error
overestimating the impact of internal attribution of an individual’s behavior
- others = things are internal
- us = self-serving bias
actor-observer bias
the actions of others are determined by internal
• Self external
• Others internal
self-serving bias
tendency to make internal or external attributions for one’s behavior in a way that benefits ourselves
• Success -> internal
• Failure -> external
first impressions
made quickly, enduring, seconds to minutes
primacy effect
remember things that come first, why it’s hard to change
confirmation bias
enforce first impression
- Info consistent with beliefs → attention to info that supports beliefs
- Info NOT consistent with beliefs → info is ignored
self-fulfilling prophecy
sociological term used to describe a prediction that causes itself to become true. Therefore, the process by which a person’s expectations about someone can lead to that someone behaving in ways which confirm the expectations
- Other’s beliefs about you -> cause -> other’s actions towards you → reinforce → your beliefs about yourself → influence → your actions → impact → other’s
- Circle
pygmalion effect
if someone expects you to behave in a certain way, you start acting like that
social norms
learned cultural rules, vary across context, culture, and time
social influence
how the presence of other people influence your behavior, feelings, and thoughts
3 levels of social influence
- obedience
- compliance
- conformity
obedience
changing behavior in response to a demand from an authority figure, most strength of social influence
compliance
change way we act/behave because someone asked us to
conformity
change behavior in response to real/imagined pressure from others, least strength of social influence
injuctive norms
how people SHOULD behave
descriptive norms
how people ACTUALLY behave
Asch’s conformity study
- 3 confederates that chose clearly wrong answers
- 35% participants conform with errors
- 75% conformed at least once
- Informational influence = think others know better than you, so you rely on their perceived accuracy to guide your own decisions
group think
psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome
3 factors contributing to group think
- Overestimating the group (perceived invulnerability, inherent morality)
- Close-mindedness (divergent thinking discouraged)
- Pressure for uniformity (challenger space)
milgram experiment
- The effects of punishment on memory
- Word pair memorization task
- Teacher gives shock for wrong answers, learner is confederate with heart condition
factors influencing milgram experiment outcomes
- Informational (think other’s know more) and normative influence (want to be liked)
- Responsibility and self-justification
- Procedural details (gradual increase)
how nazi germany inspired milgram study and results
- Wanted to see if “normal” people would give deadly shocks to innocent victims after orders
- Was a lot higher than expected/more people did it than they thought
stanford experiment
- Guards became controlling and fit into their roles in a short amount of time
- Prisoners became difficult, caused problems, and felt mistreated in a short amount of time
- Both prisoners and guards engaged in behaviors appropriate to their roles
kitty genovese
murdered, stabbed for 30 mins, attacker left and returned, 38 people heard it, no helped
bystander effect
the more people present, the less likely people are to help, 1 vs 100
- diffusion of responsibility
- deindividuation
diffusion of responsibility
assume that someone else will do it or is more capable
deindividuation
face in the crowd, lose your sense of self, people engage in impulsive acts in situations they believe they can’t be personally identified/blamed
persuasion
the process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes or behaviors
- central
- peripheral
- triad of trust
central persuastion
direct, logical, audience is motivated, produces enduring agreement
peripheral persuasion
superficial cues, common sales technique, target not thinking carefully
triad of trust
three characteristics that lead to trust
- Likability (physically attractive and socially skilled)
- Authority (status, power, expertise)
- Honesty (moral dimension of trustworthiness)
tricks of persuasion
- Free gifts and reciprocity (we feel compelled to repay what another person has given us)
- Social proof (follow the crowd)
- Getting a foot in the door (ask for something smaller first, people are more willing to help someone they have already helped
- A door in the face (start with a large request designed to be rejected)
- Low balling (pitching an attractive offer and then increasing the price with he sole aim of earning profit)
- And that’s not all
- Sunk cost trap (unrecoverable investments of money and time)
- Scarcity and psychological reactance (tendency to assert our freedom when we feel others are attempting to control us)
cognitive dissonance
an unpleasant psychological state resulting from inconsistency between two or more elements in a cognitive system
•mental discomfort that results from holding two conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes
stereotypes
overgeneralizations and not necessarily negative
prejudice
negative ATTITUDES held toward others based on common characteristics, learned
discrimination
negative action/behavior, puts prejudice into action
stereotype threat
placed in situation people fear their performance will be consistent with prevailing stereotype, adversely affects performance, self-fulfilling prophecy
redlining
discriminatory practice of avoiding investment in communities with unfavorable or high-risk demographics
social dominance orientation
dominant groups want to maintain control over subordinate groups, view ingroup as dominant/superior to outgroups and enforce existing hierarchy
right-wing authoritarianism
identifies political conservatism, authoritarian submission, authoritarian aggression, and conventionalism as key predictors of prejudice, racism, and right-wing extremism
reciprocity norm
social standard that people who help others will receive equivalent benefits from them in return
mere exposure effect
psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them
bobo doll experiment on aggression
child may express the stereotype of a group and show negative feelings toward that group, and then later state a racial slur at a member of the group or deny them some resource they are legally able to obtain in keeping with discrimination…. And all because they saw their parents or other key figures do the same at some earlier time in life
prosocial behavior
voluntary actions that are intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals
reciprocal altruism
altruistic behaviors are performed because they increase the likelihood of repayment in the future
gender
a socially constructed idea of what defines women and men
sex
whether someone is biologically female or male, as is determined by their sex chromosomes
gender roles
cultural expectations as to how women and men should look and act
gender identity
whether someone subjectively feels like a woman or man
cisgender
a person whose gender identity is the same as their born biological sex
transgender
having a gender identity that is different from one’s assigned gender
gender non-binary
people who don’t identity as either male or female
gender dysphoria
distress brought about by having a gender identity that doesn’t match one’s biological sex
primary sex characteristics
organs that allow for reproduction
secondary sex characreristics
physical differences between women and men that aren’t directly related to reproduction
intersex
having genitals that are not completely female or male
klinefelter syndrome
an intersex condition caused by having XXY sex chromosomes, resulting in men underproducing testosterone during puberty
social role theory
behavioral differences between men and women can be attributed to cultural standards and expectations about gender rather than to biological factors
gender schemas
children learn gender roles from their culture, we assign certain behaviors and actions to certain genders
gender identity
Whether someone subjectively feels like a woman or man
sexual orientation
a person’s identity in relation to the gender or genders to which they are sexually attracted
heterosexual
straight, being attracted to member of the opposite sex
homosexual
gay, being attracted to members of the same sex
bisexual
being attracted to members of both the same and opposite sex
pansexual
being attracted to members of both the same and opposite sex, as well as people who are transgender or intersex
queer
not identifying as either heterosexual or cisgender
asexual
having no sex drive and experiencing no sexual arousal toward others
sexual prejudice
• Negative attitudes and stereotypes toward people who identify as LGB
3 ways to reduce sexual prejudice
- Simple educate people about the queer community
- Showing people that LGB+ tolerance is quickly becoming the norm
- Have straight people get to know LGB+ people
contributors to sexual orientation
50% genes
-Gay sibling = 1.5-20% increased chance of being gay
-13x increase
-Twins = 50-60% heritable
Rest is determined by prenatal environment
-Mom’s hormones (exposure to testosterone)
-Testosterone affects development of hypothalamus (processes sexual attraction and arousal)
evolutionary advantages of the existence of homosexuality to promote survival
- Social glue (eases conflicts)
- Practice
- Kin selection (more resources available for children of one’s siblings, which enhances their chances of survival and indirectly pass on your DNA)
3 stages of sexual response cycle
- Excitement = vasocongestion (B to genitals)
- Orgasm = ejaculation
- Resolution = refractory period
stress
Any circumstances that threaten or a perceived to threaten, one’s well-being and thereby tax one’s ability to cope
eustress
helps us perform at our best, activates part of brain (front) to help us do better (attention and motivation), enhances memory (amygdala and hippocampus)
distress
over stressed, inability to concentrate and make good decisions (frontal areas), anxiety/panic/anger, impairs memory (amygdala takes over and shuts down hippocampus/frontal areas
hans selye
Termed General adaptation syndrome = combo of physiological , what body is doing to adapt to stress,, first demo of biological stress
•Occurs is 3 chronological stages
•Alarm stage = initial response, HPA and SAM pathway
•Resistance = body mobilizes to defend against stressor, sustained cortisol release (HPA)
•Exhaustion = ongoing response to stressor can lead to depleted resources for the body, immune system starts to be less effective, get sick
yerkes-dodson law for stress and performance
have best performance with some stress, and stress increase/decrease, so does performance
- inverted U shape
stress and coping theory
- lazarus and folkman
- cognitive appraisal
•Problem-focused coping
•Emotion-focused coping
•Stress appraisal process
•Reappraisal
Problem-focused coping
changing the source of the stress, making a plan, overal contributes to good health
emotion-focused coping
managing emotions that come with stress, can be useful when problem-focused coping is not viable coping strategy
stress appraisal process
event doesn’t matter, rather how we perceive and interpret it
reappraisal
person incorporates any new info
stressors
represent a perceived potential for harm, loss, damage
types of stressors
- Physical vs psychosocial (Can damage body, Can interfere with life, more on day to day basis)
- Internal vs external (Physical, inside body, nutritional status, From outside, work)
- Acute vs chronic (Short-lasting, Long-lasting, abuse, traumatic childhood)
- Predictable vs unpredictable (Can prepare ourselves to deal with it, Do not have time/knowledge to prepare)
- Controllable vs uncontrollable (Can “fix” the problem, Can’t fix the problem)
stress response
•Physiological = automatic arousal, hormone fluctuation
•Emotional = annoyance, anger
•Behavioral = coping efforts, lashing out
•Potentially stressful event -> subjective cog appraisal -> 3
- HPA axis
- SAM pathway
Hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenal axis
slower, hypothalamus → pituitary gland → adrenal cortex (on top of kidneys), cortisol (helps prepare body to prepare itself), threat passes → cortisol falls
Sympathomedullary pathway
faster, activates PNS (SNS → adrenalin [epinephrine]→ fight of flight), shuts down PSN (rest and digest)
fight or flight response
- SNS elicits the fight-or-flight response, which is involved in preparing the body to fight or to flee in response to stressors (Cannon, 1939)
- activation and regulation are key to understanding the stress response.
- The HPA axis results in the production of cortisol by the adrenal cortex (above the kidneys). Cortisol reduces inflammation and pain that may occur with injury, reduces immune system. Cortisol levels also help to mediate response of the Autonomic nervous system to promote resolution of stress response
homeostasis
the state of balance that is upset by stressors and then restored by the stress response
role of amygdala in stress
fire alarm
first to be affected
hippocapmus
command center (HPA axis for slower response, SAM for faster)
prefrontal cortex in stress
control our emotional responses to stress so that we do not get too stressed out
how stress increase immune function
Alert to problem, cope and restore
how stress can decrease immune function
- More stress = less healing, immune suppressed
* Less interleukin 1 when stressed
primary appraisals
based on your perceptions of the stressor characteristics, how much demand it represents, and its relevance for you
secondary appraisals
based on your perceptions of the resources available for coping for a specific stressor
challenge vs threat theory
• Potential stressor -> primary appraisal -> secondary appraisal -> threat or challenge
challenge
situations in which resources exceed the demands of the situation
threat
situations in which demands exceed the resources available for coping
trier social stress test, perceived stress scale
- Life events = major life events can be major sources of stress, but even minor life events can also be stressful
- Stressful life events list created by Holmes and Rahe
- Add up value to see how much change the event creates in your life
- When people are required to make a change, this can cause feelings of stress
- Shows risk for disease
- Kind of like the biomed model
diathesis-stress model
- Theory that mental and physical disorders develop from a genetic or biological predisposition for that illness (diathesis) combined with stressful conditions that play a precipitating or facilitating role
- More stress and more predisposition for disorder = more vulnerable
3 mental health disorders for which stress is risk facts
- PTSD
- Depression (social rejection = trigger)
- Long lasting effects from childhood stressors
influence of stress on acute vs chronic
- Acute = can last longer
* Chronic = can be more severe
how does stress affect inflammation
leads to hyper physiological levels of cortisol. This alters the effectiveness of cortisol to regulate both the inflammatory and immune response because it decreases tissue sensitivity to cortisol
5 factors that help protect us from negative effects of stess
- PA
- Sleep (6-9 hours)
- Diet
- Social support (emotional, instrumental, informational, appraisal)
- Relaxing (mindfulness)
the 4 ds
- Deviance = behavior/thoughts/feelings outside realm of normal, on it’s own not problem, just means outside of norm
- Distress
- Dysfunction = get in way of ability to function as member of society
- danger
clinical judgment
consider content, context/culture, and consequences, done using DSM
how labels with mental disorders can be harmful and helpful
- Can help a person get the correct treatment
* Can be associated with stigmas and discrimination
stigma of mental health disorders
- The destructive beliefs and attitudes held by society
* Can lead to discrimination
importance of person-first language
- You recognize that they are a person, just like everyone else, before they are their disability
- Some people are proud of what makes them unique, so you do have to ask
role of dorothea dix
advocated for more humane treatment of the mentally ill, states started funding special institutions to house and treat people with psych disorders
deinstitutionalization
A movement to reduce admissions to psychiatric hospitals, shorten lengths of stay, and improve the treatment that admitted individuals received
NAMI
national alliance of mental illness
DSM-5
- Created and used by clinicians, researchers, health insurance, pharmacies, and forensic
- How clinicians make consistent, objective diagnoses and treatment decision
- First published in 1952 in response to veterans coming home from war
gender dysphoria
psychological distress that results from an incongruence between one’s sex assigned at birth and one’s gender identity
biopsychosocial model of mental illness
- Overlap of bio, psych, and social context
- Degree of hederability can vary
- A lot to do with trauma and personality traits, socioeconomic statis
neurodevelopmental
- autism
- affect the brain and neurological systems
- first seen during infancy
- marked by impairments and deficits in multiple aspects of a child’s life, including academic ability, social functioning, and behavioral problem
schizophrenia
- 0.5-2% of world population
- Slightly more common in men (1.4:1)
- Symptoms start in 16-30 with episodes often occurring throughout remaining lifespan (come and go)
- Positive symptoms = psychotic behaviors that don’t exist in healthy person, lose touch with aspects of reality, disordered thought processes
- Hallucinations = most often auditory
- Delusions = of grandeur or persecution
- Bizarre beaviors
- Negative symptoms = disruptions to normal emotions and behaviors
- Social withdrawal
- Flat affect (blunt emotional responses)
- Anhedonia
bipolar
- Alternate between two poles of emotional extremes
- Typically 1-2 episodes/year
- Depressive episode
- Manic episode
- Inflated self-esteem
- Decreased need for sleep
- More talkative
depressive disorders
- 10%
- 20% lifetime prevalence
- Number one cause of disability in young adults
- Main cause of suicide
- Common in young people
- 30% of college students report having depression
- No cures
- Most common
- 50% of people don’t seek help
- overwhelming feeling of hopelessness, helplessness, feeling guilt/shame, don’t find joy in things they once enjoyed
- Physical manisphestation = report feeling pain
- Underlying cause/risk factors:
- Biological component
- Risk factors (female make up ⅔)
- Traumatic events and stress
anxiety
- recurrent, terrifying panic attacks (individual experiences all the effects of a fear reaction without a threatening stimulus, accompanied by strong arousal of the sympathetic ANS)
- long lasting
ocd
- Persistent thoughts, repetitive, ritualistic behaviors
- Obsessions = persisten, upsetting, unwanted thoughts that cause marked anxiety or distress
- Compulsions = ritualistic, repetitive behavior that the person feels will reduce anxiety
ptsd
- Tend to be emotionally numb or angry
- Over generalization
- Some are more susceptible than others
- Affected by hippocampus
- Have PTSD = smaller hippocampus
dissociative disorders
- A break in memory, consciousness or identity
- Dissociative fugue = inability to recall important personal information – too extensive to be explained by ordinary forgetfulness
- Dr. Jekyll anf znr. Hyde
- Dissociative amnesia = sudden memory loss, can occur with or without fugue
- Dissociative identity disorder = reports having more than one identity, formerly multiple personality disorder
- Dissociative identity disorder = reports having more than one identity, formerly multiple personality disorder
- Positive = feelings of disconnection from one’s body (depersonalization), feelings that one’s surroundings are not real (derealization), or fragmentation of identity
- Negative = experienced as loss of memory or mental function
eating disorders
- anorexia nervosa requires an intense fear of weight gain or becoming fat as well as extreme discomfort in the individual’s perception of his or her own body weight and shape
- ARFID, on the other hand, is often defined by selective or picky eating
- binge eating disorder (BED) is the most common of the eating disorders, higher among women, close to 2% of men, most prevalent among individuals seeking to lose weight, eating an abnormally large amount of food in a short period of time
sleep/wake
- concerned with disturbances that entail dissatisfaction with the quality, timing, or duration of sleep
- individuals experience daytime distress and impairment, including fatigue, difficulty with cognitive focus, and declines in mood
- Narcolepsy is a sleep–wake disorder that involves excessive daytime sleepiness due to the inability to maintain good sleep at night
- excessive sleepiness results in recurrent, sudden lapses into sleep, typically lasting from a few seconds to several minutes
sexual dysfuntion
- umbrella category for disorders associated with clinically significant difficulty in sexual response or the ability to experience sexual pleasure
- rule out inadequate sexual stimulation
- associated with general declines in health associated with aging.
- sexual dysfunction characterized by recurrent failure to get or keep an erection during sexual activity with a partner
- can lead to low self-esteem or a decreased sense of masculinity
impluse control and conduct disorders
- The ability to resist urges, temptation, and impulses to engage in behaviors that may bring harm to self or others.
- repeated failure to resist urges to steal items, even though the individual does not need the items for personal use or their monetary value
- individuals with kleptomania can often afford to pay for the items and may discard or give them away after stealing them
addiction
- A disorder of the brain reward system characterized by compulsive and repetitive engagement in activities associated with immediate pleasure, even when the long-term outcomes are negative
neurocognitive disorders
- neurocognitive disorder characterized by memory loss, disorientation, confusion, impaired judgment, and behavioral changes
- fairly common disorder, with prevalence rates ranging from 5–10% of the population
- Alzheimer’s disease may include forgetfulness, difficulty making decisions, and mood swings
personality disorders
- indicates an enduring pattern of characteristics, beliefs, and behaviors that are drastically different from the expectations of the individual’s society and lead to distress and impairment
- usually first seen during adolescence or early adulthood and, by definition, do not change over time
- personality disorder has difficulty in social relationships and with social expectations
- borderline personality disorder is instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotion, cluster B, characterized by intense emotions and moods that can change quickly, ey characteristic of borderline personality disorder is black-and-white thinking
cluster A
Odd and Eccentric Behaviors, social awkwardness, social withdrawal, and distorted thinking.
cluster B
Dramatic, Emotional, and Erratic Behaviors, problems with impulse control, moral reasoning, and the ability to regulate emotions
cluster C
Anxious and Fearful Behaviors, typified by shy, nervous, insecure, and overly cautious behaviors
