Exam 2 Terms

Question 1

French; lived from 1713-1784; could make a living from his writing alone; mostly responsible for the Encyclopedia (which was multiple volumes that were published between 1751-1765; was an ambitious work; a combination of all human knowledge; had a different purpose than a modern encyclopedia; he wanted the encyclopedia to be controversial; trying to spark debate)

Significant Reasons
• The Encyclopedia was a best-seller (Helped spread the ideas of the Enlightenment around Europe); each volume would get reprinted; got cheaper, meaning it sold more, repeating the cycle
• he came from a working class family (which was rare among Philosophes)
• was an atheist
• believed that woman should have equal rights with men (very rare)

Answer 1

Denis Diderot

Question 2

Italian noble who lived from 1738-1794; was mostly interested in criminal justice; wrote On Crimes and Punishments in 1764; it broke new ground in that time

Significant Reasons
• He said that in the criminal justice system, an accused person should be considered innocent until proven guilty
• argued that torture to extract confessions is wrong (morally wrong, but also ineffective; an innocent person is likely to confess to something he did not do under torture, and a guilty person, if he can withstand the torture, gets away)
• argued that punishment should fit the crime (capital punishment was the norm for most crimes prior to this; if you can get executed for stealing a small item, what is to stop you from killing a witness; more crimes will be committed if punishments are not different)
• opposed capital punishment in general (favored long prison sentences; there weren’t prisons for criminals during his time)

Answer 2

Cesare Beccaria

Question 3

grievances written by people of France in 1789 to go to the Estates-General

3rd estate was Significant
o None of them were revolutionary (none said that they did not need a king; they praised the king for asking for their opinion)
o peasants wanted an end to seigneurial dues (all the obligations peasants owed to their landlords)
o urban working class wanted a minimum wage and a maximum on food prices
o middle class wanted equality of opportunity (judges should have to go to law school; shouldn’t be judges just because they were noble)
o even though they were not revolutionary, once they were submitted, they thought the king was going to fix those things; expectations rose)

Answer 3

Cahiers

Question 4

the Constitution preamble
August 1789 in France
•Was intended to outdo the English Bill of Rights and the American Declaration of Independence

Significant reasons
• declaration defined sovereignty as belonging to the people of France
• enumerated certain rights (freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of press)
• certain equalities were also enumerated (equality of opportunity, equality of taxation, equality of law)
• established universal male suffrage (all adult males could vote)
• established people’s militia, called the National Guard (weren’t sure they could trust the French Army; created a volunteer army; middle class organization; a person must provide his own horse and his own weapons; head of National Guard- Marquis de Lafayette)

Answer 4

Declaration (of the Rights of Man and the Citizen)

Question 5

the Working class women from Paris marched 12 miles; they were joined by Marquis and the National Guard; were able to induce the king to open the royal granaries and also induced the king and the royal family to come back to Paris and stay there so the people of Paris could keep an eye on them; the royal family never returned to Versailles

Significant reasons
• the high costs of food concerned women (women put bread on their head and said that they were bringing back the baker and his family back)
• National Guard joined the women (showed Cross-class cooperation)
• Royal family was taken back to Paris (Never returned to Versailles)
• Effect it had on the National Assembly (Would have to pay attention to what people wanted in Paris; They witnessed the women coming)

Answer 5

March to Versailles

Question 6

paper notes worth a certain amount of land in France in 1789

Significant Points
• Financial crisis still existed; government of France was still bankrupt; showed weakness
• National Assembly confiscated all the land belonging to the Catholic Church (Church land is now government land)
• Church made its money from the land; government took over responsibilities that had been a part of the Catholic Church’s responsibilities (Education, poor relief, public health)
• National Assembly was going to sell off all the land to resolve the financial crisis (the people would be given paper notes; which acted like paper money; backed up by land; were Worth x amount of land; Over time, value of each one went down causing land; initially it helped the financial crisis)

Answer 6

Assignats

Question 7

was put out by the National Assembly of France in 1790

Significant Reasons
• Something all the priests had to sign; Said the French government was above the Roman Catholic pope
• clergy were going to be elected, not chosen
• priests would be paid by the government
• lots of priests refused to sign the document

Answer 7

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

Question 8

o Began summer 1793, done by Committee of Public Safety by Robespierre

Significant Reasons
• was a draft; all single young males had to serve in the French military
• did not just address single young men; had roles for everyone in French society (women had to sew tents and uniforms for the military, children were to role bandages, old men were to be cheerleaders for the revolution, horses even got drafted)
• was successful (put down the Vonde rebellion; put down the federalist revolts; wars outside of France started going in their favor even though they were fighting against almost everybody in Europe)
• created modern nationalism (they were fighting for themselves)

Answer 8

Levee en Masse

Question 9

1794-1799
o Directors- 5 guys- supposed to function as the directors of the executive

Significant Reasons
• restricted voting to only males who owned substantial property
• The Directory reopened the churches; allowed for religious toleration
• no interest in economic equality; got rid of all economic regulations
• turned against the Sans-culottes
• kept the wars outside of France going

Answer 9

The Directory

Question 10

• Type of land use; a crop rotation that occurred in Britain from 1650-1750
• Agriculture before: crops were grown in three fields; two were used, with one not being used to replenish nutrients

Significant Reasons
• four field system- and no land lay unused (fallowed); all four fields were in use all the time
• crops that were grown (barley, wheat, turnips, and clover, turnips and clover added nitrogen to the soil, so no land lay unused)
• besides being good for the soil, the turnips and clover were good to feed animals with; more animals could be kept alive and survive the winter
• more animals meant more manure which is good for the soil; gives bigger crop yields
• better soil, more animals, better crop yields, upward spiral→more food; both from plants and from animals

Answer 10

Norfolk Rotation

Question 11

where a counter revolution/civil war broke out in a region of France
-lasted from March to December 1793

Significant Reasons

• they did not want the king
• did not like the civil constitution
• believed they were better off before the revolution
• half of all the people who were killed in the Reign of Terror where killed here

Answer 11

Vendee

Question 12

• a taxation system that started in 1733 in Britain
• a tax paid on goods at the point of purchase

Significant Reasons
• placed on individual goods; not across the board like sales tax is, but instead government put the excise taxes on the necessities; clothing, food
• regressive- the lower ones income, the higher the percentage of that income got paid
• hard to evade and the excise collectors were not corrupt; merchant would collect the tax, then a government official would collect it from the merchant; they weren’t corrupt because they were moved from place to place
• predictable; government knew who much money to expect to get from them each year
• government was able to take out loans easily and with low interest because they knew a specific date that they could pay it back

Answer 12

excise

Question 13

• improved the steam engine
• lived from 1736-1819
• from Scotland; worked at Glasgow University
• he is credited with the steam engine
• created the new steam engine in 1769

Significant Reasons
o Put a cooling cylinder around the piston, keeping it from overheating and blowing up
o attached a rotary arm to the piston; produced power whether the piston was going up or down; provided constant power
o produced enough power that it could run many machines at the same time
o because it could run many machines at the same time, people who bought one would build a factory around it

Answer 13

James Watt

Question 14

o Tory creation in 1795 by judges that was copied by other places throughout Britain- a system of taking care of the poor people

Significant Reasons
• A poor person would get money from the parish that would make up the difference between that poor person’s wages and the price of bread
• Local taxes collected by the parishes (units of local government) were used to make up the difference between the wages and the price of bread
• example of Tory paternalism (the higher ups in society feel an obligation to keep the poorer people alive, in turn expect the poor people to treat the rich with deference and not make any trouble); (Whigs hated the Speenhamland System)
• Reason why Whigs hated the system- created a group of people who were dependent on the parish for survival
• Reason why Whigs hated the system- in a given parish, there was one big employer that employed a lot of people; the owner of that farm could pay the poor people more, so then other people would have to make up the difference between the poor wages and the bread money (Whigs say that it is a subsidy to the large land owners and big agriculture)

Answer 14

Speenhamland System

Question 15

• 1788-1850
• conservative; influential Tory

Significant Reasons
o Created the Metropolitan Police Force- Scotland Yard in 1829- First modern police force in western civilization
o Became a supporter of the Catholic Emancipation- Catholics would be allowed to vote in Britain if they met the other voting requirements (property ownership requirements)
o Became more liberal overtime

Answer 15

Robert Peel

Question 16

o	1815- middle class had a response to the Industrial Revolution by creating this
•	middle class organization in Britain

Significant Reasons
• problem with the corn laws- believed that it was class legislation that only benefited the ruling class at everyone else’s expense
• first nationwide political movement in Britain
• used sophisticated techniques to press their point (created own newspaper, held mass meetings, petitioned parliaments, used sophisticated techniques)
• middle class’s ability to organize and get their message out made them friends in Parliament with the Whigs

Answer 16

ACLL (anti-corn law league)

Question 17

• Wanted to give the middle class the ability to vote
Whigs
• wanted to get rid of rotten boroughs
• wanted to give representation to cities
1831- House of Commons passed this; the House of Lords did not
• William IV
o could create Lords; Whigs got him to create Lords to get the act through the House of Lords; he told the House of Lords that if they did not pass the act, he would create more lords
o 1832- House of Lords caved and the act was passed

Significant Reasons
o	Gave the middle class the vote- became part of the ruling class because they were now represented in Parliament
o	redistricted Britain; changed the voting districts
o	Great Reform Act showed that the British constitution could be changed; unwritten constitution could be changed; had never been changed before

Answer 17

Great Reform Act

Question 18

• 1833- the reformed parliament passed these
• specific to cotton factories in England

Significant Reasons
o First child labor laws in western civilization
o factory acts said that children under the age of 9 could no longer work in cotton factories
o children between 9 and 16 could only work 12 hours a day in a cotton factory
o weaknesses (only appointed foreign specters to make sure that the provisions were in effect); not inspected very much

Answer 18

Factory Acts

Question 19

1835
• City governments- two levels: alderman and town council
o town council would elect members of themselves to elect the alderman and the alderman would appoint the members of the town council; no voting involved
o corruption was rampant
• new economic elites were not getting into the local governments

Significant Reasons
o democratized local government so that town councils and aldermen would be elected by town voters
o now middle class people could get into local government
o some cities began to make improvements on conditions

Answer 19

Municipal Corporations Act

Question 20

1834
• Want to get rid of the Speenhamland System; they did so through the poor law

Significant Reasons
o Ended the Speenhamland System; no one would get cash money in terms of poor relief
o each parish would now build a work house; this would be where poor people could get relief
o created the Work House Test (had to move into and work in the work house to get relief); families were separated; how bad do you want relief?; are you willing to put up with all of this to get help?
o intended to be terrible; didn’t want people to move into work houses
o working class people hated it

Answer 20

New Poor Law

Question 21

o 1819 (after Napoleonic wars)
• meeting of working class people in Manchester
• Henry Hunt- known to be a political radical
• August 1819
• going to talk about male suffrage

Significant Reasons
o	More than 60,000 people; working class people, families
o	security was provided by yeomanry (middle class people who could afford their own horses and weapons)
o	going to arrest Henry Hunt; charged through the crowd to get to him; killed 11 people and wounded 400
o	came to be called Peterloo in a devise way in a mocking way about Waterloo (British yeomanry defeated woman and children; working class people resented this; used it as criticism)

Answer 21

Peterloo