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A&P II > Exam 2: Neuro > Flashcards

Exam 2: Neuro Flashcards

1
Q

what are three divisions of the nervous system

A

sensory
integrative
motor

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2
Q

what is included in the sensory division of the nervous system

A

tactile
visual
auditory
olfactory

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3
Q

what is included in the integrative division of the nervous system

A

process information, creation of memory

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4
Q

what does the motor division of the NS allow us to do

A

respond to and move about in our environment

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5
Q

the precentral gyri is related to ___________ function

A

motor

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6
Q

the post central gyri is related to _______ function

A

sensory

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7
Q

the afferent direction is ____________ the nervous system

A

towards

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8
Q

the efferent direction is _________ from the nervous system

A

away

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9
Q

what nerve ending responds to pressure

A

pacinian copuscle

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10
Q

what nerve ending responds to touch

A

meissners corpuscle

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11
Q

what joint nerve endings send messages to the DRG

A

kinesthetic receptors

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12
Q

what nerve endings respond to pain, cold and warmth

A

free nerve endings

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13
Q

What is the role of the thalamus?

A

routes afferent sensory messages to correct portions of brain (muscle cortex, glands, memory etc)

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14
Q

what does the temporal lobe do

A

intellectual and emotional functions
memory like face recognition
hearing

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15
Q

what actions does the brainstem control

A

swallowing
breathing
heartrate

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16
Q

what does the wernickes area do

A

speech comprehension
words/thought

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17
Q

what does the cerebellum do

A

coordinates movement and balance

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18
Q

what does the occipital lobe do

A

visual

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19
Q

what does the parietal lobe do

A

comprehension of language
spanish to english

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20
Q

what does the frontal lobe do

A

judgement,
foresight,
voluntary movement
problem solving
organization

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21
Q

what does the brocas area do

A

speech

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22
Q

what does the frontal lobe/olfactory bulb do

A

smell

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23
Q

what are the three levels of CNS function

A

spinal cord
lower brain
higher brain

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24
Q

T/F the spinal cord is just a conduit

A

false

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25
Q

what is contained in the lower brain level

A

medulla,
pons,
mesencephalon,
hypothalmus,
thalamus,
cerebellum,
basal ganglia

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26
Q

what is contained in the spinal cord level

A

walking circuits
withdrawal circuits
support against gravity circuits
circuits for reflex control of organ function

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27
Q

what does the lower brain level control

A

subconscious
arterial pressure,
respiration,
equilibrium,
feeding reflexes,
emotional patters

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28
Q

what is the role of the higher brain/cortical level

A

-memory storehouse
-muscle memory
-thought processing
-opens the world up for ones mind

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29
Q

T/F the higher brain cortex usually functions alone

A

False
works with lower centers

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30
Q

what are the three major components of the neuron structure

A

soma
axon
dendrite

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31
Q

what is the main body of the neuron

A

soma

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32
Q

which part of the neuron from the soma to the effector part of the neuron

A

axon

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33
Q

which part of the neuron transmits the action potential

A

axon

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34
Q

what is the sensory portion of the neuron

A

dendrite

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35
Q

which part of the neuron conducts electrical charge, not action potentials

A

dendrite

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36
Q

Neuron Structure

A
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37
Q

the posterior portion of the spinal cord is the __________ NS

A

sensory (afferent)

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38
Q

the anterior portion of the spinal cord is the __________ NS

A

motor (efferent)

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39
Q

Where is the grey and white matter in the spinal cord?

A

grey inside
white outside

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40
Q

which root (anterior or posterior) has a ganglion

A

posterior (sensory)

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41
Q

in the brain where is the grey and white matter

A

White inside
grey outside

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42
Q

why is membrane charge close to Ek charge

A

membrane is very permeable to K

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43
Q

what is the nearnst equation

A

balance of concentration and electrical gradients creates resting potential

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44
Q

what two ions are in greatest concentration outside the cell

A

Na
Cl

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45
Q

what ion is in greatest concentration inside the cell

A

K

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46
Q

what offsets the + charge of K inside the cell to make it -

A

proteins

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47
Q

What is a subthreshold stimulus?

A

weak local depolarization that does not reach threshold

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48
Q

T/F subthreshold potentials summate

A

True

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49
Q

T/F action potentials summate

A

False

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50
Q

what an epsp

A

excitatory post synaptic potential
brings membrane charge closer to threshold (+)
this makes it easier for an AP to occur

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51
Q

what type of summation is from the same synapse

A

temporal summation

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52
Q

what type of summation is from different synapse

A

spatial summation

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53
Q

what is an IPSP

A

inhibitory post synaptic potential
makes membrane
harder to reach AP

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54
Q

what is an example of IPSP

A

seizure meds

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55
Q

temporal summation almost ____________ induces an AP

A

never (he said spatial but book says opposite)

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56
Q

how long does an EPSIS/IPSP last

A

15 mSec

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57
Q

each terminal on a dendrite account for _____ - _______ mV EPSP

A

0.5-1.0

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58
Q

the higher number of synapses the ________ likely you are to reach threshold

A

more

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59
Q

what is a facilitated neuron

A

another neuron fires bringing the potential closer to threshold so the next impulse builds off the first one (summation)

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60
Q

Do dendrites transmit action potentials?

A

no
they conduct electricity

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61
Q

why keeps the dendrites from having APs

A

leaky K and Cl channels keep charge low

No Na channels

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62
Q

T/F all neurons have the same activity and frequency

A

False
different neurons have different activity and frequency

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63
Q

what substances are used in ion channel postsynaptic membranes

A

cation/anion channels
ligand gated chanels (Ach, NE)

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64
Q

what type of response do ion channel postsynaptic membranes have

A

short lived

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65
Q

what substances are used in 2nd messenger system postsynaptic membranes

A

neuropeptides (G protein)

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66
Q

what type of responses do 2nd messenger system postsynaptic membranes have

A

multiple responses
prolonged responses

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67
Q

Where are gap junctions found?

A

cardiac and smooth muscle

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68
Q

what is the function of gap junctions

A

increased speed of conduction of APs between cells

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69
Q

what is a second messenger always bound to

A

G protein

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70
Q

second messenger system is a (shorter longer) process than ion

A

longer

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71
Q

what kind of messengers does the second messenger system use

A

hormones

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72
Q

what are the 4 functions of a second messenger system

A

1) opens channels
2) activates enzymes to produce cAMP or cGMP
3) activates intracellular enzymes
4)activates gene transcription

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73
Q

what are some class 1 neurotransmitters

A

acetylcholine

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74
Q

what are some class 2 neurotransmitters

A

norepinephrine
epinephrine
dopamine
serotonin
histamine

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75
Q

what are some class 3 neurotransmitters

A

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
glycine
glutamine
aspartate

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76
Q

what are some class 4 neurotransmitters

A

NO (nitric oxide)

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77
Q

how does acidosis affect synaptic transmission

A

depresses neuronal activity
ex. diabetic coma
ph change from 7.4-7.0 results in coma

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78
Q

how does alkalosis affect synaptic transmission

A

increased neuronal excitability
epileptic seizure
ph change from 7.4 to 8.0 results in seizure

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79
Q

how does hypoxia affect synaptic transmission

A

brain dependent on O2
interruption of brain blood flow for 5-10 seconds leads to unconsciousness

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80
Q

what do mechanoreceptors detect

A

deformation
(pressure changes formation of receptors)

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81
Q

what do thermoreceptors detect

A

changes in temperature

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82
Q

What do nociceptors respond to?

A

damage (pain)

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83
Q

what do electromagnetic receptors detect

A

light (like rods and cones in eye)

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84
Q

what do rods in eye detect

A

light
white and black, no color

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85
Q

What do chemoreceptors detect?

A

taste
smell
CO2
O2

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86
Q

What does the pacinian corpuscle do?

A

detects pressure

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87
Q

what determines the location of a receptor

A

their function (idk this is a direct quote)

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88
Q

what is a modality of sensation

A

each of the principal types of sensation: pain, touch, sight, sound

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89
Q

what is the the labeled line principle

A

nerve fibers transmit only one modality of sensation

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90
Q

how do all receptors work at a cellular level

A

they all change the membrane permeability to ions causing either hyper or hypo polarization

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91
Q

how does receptor stimulation affect sensation of surrounding receptors

A

stimulation of one nerve sends a message to surrounding nerves increasing the membrane potential (closer to threshold) so it is easier for the nerve to reach threshold and send AP (facilitated)

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92
Q

if a nerve has a node of ranvier it is a ____________ nerve

A

myelinated

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93
Q

how does an increase in stimulus intesity affect AP frequency

A

increased receptor potential,
which increases AP frequency

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94
Q

receptor potential

A
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95
Q

small changes in stimulus strength can be discerned when intensity is _______

A

low

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96
Q

only large changes in stimulus strength can be discerned when intensity is _______

A

high

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97
Q

an increased amplitude of observed receptor potential requires a _________ stimulus strength

A

increased

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98
Q

how does stimulus strength and receptor potential affect a sensation like pain

A

there is a threshold for how much pain is possible to be perceived

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99
Q

what is adaptation of receptors

A

Neurons stop responding to constant stimuli

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100
Q

the fact that your body stops sending you signals about wearing a shirt is an example of what principle

A

adaption of receptors

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101
Q

what are examples of two nerves that adapt very quickly

A

pacinian corpuscle (stretch)
hair receptor

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102
Q

what are examples of two nerves that have slow and limited adaptation

A

joint capsule receptors
muscle spindle receptors

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103
Q

touch sensation adaptation

A
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104
Q

what decreases the distortion force in pacinian corpuscles

A

fluid redistributes, this is fast adaptation

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105
Q

what allows photoreceptors to have fast adaptation

A

receptors change the amount of light sensitive chemicals

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106
Q

what kind of receptor is a pacinian corpuscle

A

mechanoreceptor

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107
Q

is a muscle spindle tonic or phasic?

A

tonic (slow adapting)

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108
Q

is a golgi tendon apparatus tonic or phasic?

A

tonic (slow adapting)

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109
Q

is a ruffini ending tonic or phasic?

A

tonic (slow adapting)

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110
Q

is a merkel disk tonic or phasic?

A

tonic (slow adapting)

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111
Q

is a macula receptor tonic or phasic?

A

tonic (slow adapting)

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112
Q

is a temperature receptor tonic or phasic?

A

tonic (slow adapting)

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113
Q

is a chemoreceptor tonic or phasic?

A

tonic (slow adapting)

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114
Q

is a baroreceptor tonic or phasic?

A

tonic (slow adapting)

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115
Q

is a pain receptor tonic or phasic?

A

tonic (slow adapting)

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116
Q

is a tonic receptor slow or fast adapting

A

slow

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117
Q

a tonic receptor transmits impulses to brain for a ________ period of time

A

long

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118
Q

what kind of receptor keeps us appraised of our surroundings

A

tonic

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119
Q

how long does it take tonic receptors to adapt

A

hours to days

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120
Q

when do phasic receptors respond to stimuli

A

only when change is happening

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121
Q

what affects the rate and response of a phasic receptor

A

rate and intensity of stimuli

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122
Q

what receptors are very important for balance and movement

A

phasic (fast adapting)

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123
Q

Is a Pacinian corpuscle tonic or phasic?

A

phasic (fast acting)

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124
Q

Is a meissners corpuscle tonic or phasic?

A

phasic (fast acting)

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125
Q

Is a semicircular canal receptor tonic or phasic?

A

phasic (fast acting)

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126
Q

what type of receptor continues to respond to stimuli

A

tonic

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127
Q

what type of receptor responds only at onset and offset of stimuli

A

phasic

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128
Q

an A class nerve is (myelinated unmyelinated

A

myelinated

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129
Q

a C class nerve is (myelinated unmyelelinated)

A

unmyelinated

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130
Q

the larger the diameter of the nerve, the _________ the velocity

A

higher

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131
Q

what are the divisions of A classification of nerves from fastest to slowest

A

A alpha
A beta
A gamma
A Delta

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132
Q

what are some of the sensory function of C classification of nerves (unmyelinated)

A

crude touch and pressure
tickle
aching pain
cold
warmth

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133
Q

what is a motor function of C classification nerves

A

sympathetic

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134
Q

a nerve of 20 micrometers moves at a velocity of

A

120 meters/sec

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135
Q

what receptor has the sensory function of proprioception

A

muscle spindle

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136
Q

what are the two ways to increase signal intensity

A

spatial summation
temporal summation

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137
Q

if a nerve is excited, this means it has an

A

action potential

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138
Q

if a nerve is facilitated its membrane potential is changed to be (closer/further) to/from threshold

A

closer

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139
Q

what is a neuronal pool

A

groups of neurons with special characteristics

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140
Q

what are the different types of neuronal pools

A

converging
diverging
reverberating
inhibitory

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141
Q

what are the two type of divergent neuronal paths

A

same tract
multiple tract

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142
Q

what is an example of divergence in same tract

A

pyramid cells in motor cortex

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143
Q

what are examples of divergence in multiple tracts

A

information from dorsal columns take two directions one to cerebellum and then to thalamus and cerebral cortex

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144
Q

what is an amplifying type of divergence

A

divergence in the same tract

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145
Q

what are the two types of convergence neuronal pathways

A

single source
multiple source

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146
Q

convergence from a single source is an example of

A

spatial summation

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147
Q

what controls the antagonistic pairs of muscles

A

reciprocol inhibition circuit (extensors and flexors have to alternate relaxation and tension)

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148
Q

what prevents over-activity in brain

A

inhibitory circuit

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149
Q

what kind of circuit continually fires

A

reverberatory

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150
Q

what are examples of reverberatory circuits

A

HR,
respiration,
vaso tone

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151
Q

what type of feedback do reverberatory circuits have

A

positive feedback

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152
Q

What stops a reverberatory circuit?

A

fatigue of synaptic junction

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153
Q

Do all reverberatory circuits fatigue?

A

no (vascular tone, gut tone, HR, resp etc)

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154
Q

what are examples of tactile mechanoreceptor sensations

A

touch,
pressure,
vibration,
tickle,
itch

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155
Q

what are examples of proprioceptive mechanoreceptor sensations

A

static position
rate of change

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156
Q

what do thermoreceptors detect

A

heat and cold

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157
Q

What do nociceptors respond to?

A

pain and any factor that damages tissue

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158
Q

what is the location of Meissner corpuscles

A

non-hairy skin close to surface

-fingertips
-lips
-eyelids
-nipples
-external genetalia

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159
Q

what is the function of meissner corpuscles

A

Motion detection, grip control

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160
Q

what is the stimuli for meissner corpuscles

A

skin motion, low frequency vibration

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161
Q

what is the nerve type of meissner corpuscles

A

type A beta nerve fibers

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162
Q

what is the location of merkel discs

A

tip of epidermal ridges

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163
Q

what is the function of merkel disks

A

form and texture perception

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164
Q

what is the stimuli for merkel disks

A

edges, points, corners, curvature

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165
Q

what tactile receptors help you differentiate between picking up a ball or block

A

merkel disks

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166
Q

what is the nerve type of merkle disks

A

type A beta fibers

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167
Q

what is the location of pacinian corpuslce

A

dermis and deeper tissues

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168
Q

what is the function of pacinian corpuslces

A

perception of distant events through transmitted vibrations

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169
Q

what is the stimuli of pacninian corpuscles

A

vibration

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170
Q

what is the nerve type of pacinian corpuscles

A

type A beta nerve fibers

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171
Q

what is the location of ruffini corpuscles

A

dermis (joint capsules)

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172
Q

what is the function of ruffini corpuscle

A

tangential force,
hand shape,
motion detection

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173
Q

what is the stimuli of ruffini corpuscle

A

skin stretch

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174
Q

what is the nerve type of ruffini corpuscle

A

type A beta fibers

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175
Q

what is the location of free nerve endings (myelinated)

A

surface of body and elsewhere

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176
Q

what is the function/stimuli of free nerve endings (myelinated)

A

pain
temp

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177
Q

what is the nerve type of free nerve endings (myelinated)

A

type A delta

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178
Q

what is the location of free nerve endings (unmyelinated)

A

surface of body and elsewhere

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179
Q

what is the function/stimuli of free nerve endings (unmyelinated)

A

pain
temp
itch
tickle

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180
Q

what is the nerve type of free nerve endings (unmyelinated)

A

type C

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181
Q

what are the two pathways for sensory afferents

A

anterolateral system
dorsal column-medial lemniscal system

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182
Q

where do all sensory afferents first go to on spinal cord

A

posterior root ganglion

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183
Q

dorsal column-medial lemniscal system has _________ (#) of nerves in the spinal cord

A

1, goes straight up to medulla oblongata

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184
Q

the anterolateral system enters the dorsal root and has a synapse that crosses the ____________ and goes up the __________

A

anterior commissure
anterolateral tract

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185
Q

the anterolateral system has ___ (#) of nerves in the spinal cord

A

2, crosses the anterior commissure

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186
Q

white matter is made up of

A

pathways

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187
Q

dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway is made up of ________ myleninated nerve fibers

A

large

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188
Q

What is decussate?

A

where sensory nerves cross over to the opposite side of the nervous system

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189
Q

how many neurons are involved in the dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway

A

3

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190
Q

where does the dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway decussate

A

medulla oblongata (lower)

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191
Q

after crossing over in the medulla oblongota the dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway goes through the _____________ to the ____________

A

medial lemniscus
ventrobasal complex of thalamus

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192
Q

where does almost all sensory afferents go

A

ventrobasal complex of thalamus

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193
Q

where does the third nerve of the dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway synapse

A

ventrobasal complex of thalamus,
terminate in cortex

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194
Q

what type of mechanoreceptor information is transmitted in the dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway

A

discrete types with a high degree of spatial fidelity
(touch, vibration, position, fine pressure)

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195
Q

what kind of neurons are in the anterolateral system

A

smaller myelinated and unmylinated fibers for slow transmission

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196
Q

how many neurons are involved in the anterolateral system

A

3

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197
Q

where does the anterolateral system decussate

A

spinal cord

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198
Q

the anterolateral system has a ______ degree of spatial orientation

A

low

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199
Q

what sensations are transmitted in the anterolateral system

A

pain,
thermal,
crude touch,
pressure,
tickle,
itch,
sexual sensations

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200
Q

where does the third neuron of the anterolateral system synapse

A

ventrobasal and intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus, terminates in cortex

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201
Q

what is the greatest area of representation of somatosensory cortex

A

1- lips
2- face
3- tongue

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202
Q

what areas have the least representation of somatosensory cortex

A

trunk and lower body

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203
Q

what determines where a sensation goes in brain

A

thalmus

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204
Q

what layer do all incoming signals go

A

4

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205
Q

how many layers does the structure of the cerebral cortex have

A

6

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206
Q

layers can have _________ columns of modality

A

multiple

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207
Q

where is layer 1 in the cortex

A

near the surface

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208
Q

where is layer 6 in the cortex

A

deep

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209
Q

what layers receive diffuse input from the lower brain centers

A

layer 1 and 2

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210
Q

what layers send axons to closely related portion of the cortex for communicating between similar areas

A

2 and 3

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211
Q

what layers send axons to more distant parts of the nervous system

A

5 and 6

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212
Q

where does layer 5 send signals

A

brainstem

213
Q

where does layer 6 send signals

A

thalamus

214
Q

a column in the cortex represents what

A

a specific sensory modality (stretch, pressure, touch, etc)

215
Q

a small stimuli on a single point will stimulate (less/more) receptors than a large single point stimimuli

A

less

216
Q

what is lateral inhibition

A

when an excited neuron reduces the activity in neighboring neurons
narrows area of sensation

217
Q

what disease follows a dermatome

A

varicella (shingles)

218
Q

dermatomes

A
219
Q

what is a dermatome

A

area of skin supplied by a sensory neuron that arise from a spinal nerve ganglion

220
Q

what kind of stimuli cause fast pain

A

knife cut, needle poke, burn

221
Q

where is fast pain stimuli usually felt

A

surface of body

222
Q

where is slow pain usually felt

A

body surface and deeper tissue

223
Q

what kind of stimuli cause slow pain

A

throbbing/aching

224
Q

what type of pain is bradykinin associated with

A

slow pain

225
Q

fast pain travels on _______ nerves

A

myelinated

226
Q

what is the main cause of pain from tissue damage

A

bradykinin

227
Q

slow pain travels on ______ or ______ nerves

A

small myelinated or unmyelinated

228
Q

what are the three signs of inflammation

A

heat, redness, swelling

229
Q

what are some inflammatory mediators

A

bradykinin, prostaglandin,

230
Q

what kind of receptors are pain receptors

A

free nerve endings

231
Q

where are free nerve endings located

A

skin,
arterial wall,
joint surfaces,
periosteum,
falx and tentorium of cranial vault

232
Q

do pain receptors adapt to stimuli?

A

no

233
Q

what is intensity of pain related to

A

rate of tissue damage

234
Q

what contributes to pain resulting from tissue damage (slow pain)

A

bradykinin
potassium
proteolytic enzymes (neutrophils)

235
Q

What causes emphysema?

A

neutrophils dissolving elastin around alveoli,

236
Q

what is ischemia

A

lack of blood flow

237
Q

what is hypoxia

A

lack of o2

238
Q

what causes ischemic pain

A

lactic acid build up (death of tissue)
bradykinin
proteolytic enzymes

239
Q

how long does it take for pain to occur in arterial occlusion of limb

A

15-20 seconds

240
Q

what kind of pain travels in the neospinothalamic tract

A

fast pain

241
Q

what fibers transport the fast pain

A

type A delta

242
Q

what fibers transport slow pain

A

type C fibers

243
Q

what kind of pain travel in the paleospinothalamic tract

A

slow pain

244
Q

where does the first neuron of the neospinothalamic tract travel

A

into posterior horn, up or down 1-2 segments, terminates in posterior horn in lamina marginalis

245
Q

what is the path of the second neuron in the neospinothalamic tract

A
  1. starts in posterior horn lamina marginalis
  2. immediately crosses over the anterior commissure to the anteriolateral column
  3. travel up to the reticular formation of the ventrobasal complex of the thalamus
246
Q

what is the neurotransmitter for A-delta fiber of neospinothalamic tract

A

glutamate

247
Q

what lamina is the lamina marginalis in

A

1

248
Q

what lamina is the substantia gelatinosa in

A

2-3

249
Q

what lamina do Ad pain nerves (neospinothalamic) dessucate in

A

1 Lamina marginalis

250
Q

what part of the spinal cord does the 2nd neuron of the neospinothalamic tract travel on

A

anterolateral column

251
Q

where do most 2nd order neospinothalamic tract nerves terminate

A

ventrobasal complex of the thalamus

252
Q

where do 3rd order neurons of the neospinothalamic tract travel to

A

cortex

253
Q

can fast, sharp pain (neospinalthalamic) be localized well?

A

yes, when other tactile receptors are also stimulated

254
Q

what happens with pain receptors in retricular formation

A

pain sensations get dissipated to trigger other portions of brain

255
Q

what pathways use the anterolateral pathway

A

tactile,
neospinothalamic,
paleospinalthalamic

256
Q

how many neurons are in the neospinothalamic tract

A

3

257
Q

where does the neospinothalamic tract decassate

A

within spinal cord

258
Q

what stimulates the tactile plate? what does it do

A

pain
releases endogenous pain relief

259
Q

what type of nerve fiber is used in the paleospinothalamic tract

A

C fiber

260
Q

what type of pain is transmitted in the paleospinothalamic tract

A

slow, burning pain

261
Q

where does first neuron of the paleospinothalamic tract synapse

A

2 and 3 (substantia gelatinoa), or lamina 5

majority will go synapse in 5 first

262
Q

where do all neurons of the paleospinothalamic tract synapse before crossing to the anterolateral pathway

A

lamina 5

263
Q

what is the neurotransmitter for type C fibers of the paleospinothalamic tract

A

substance p

264
Q

does the paleospinothalamic tract localize well

A

no
just to affect limb

265
Q

where do most nerves of the paleospinothalamic tract terminate

A

reticular nuclei of medulla, pons, mesencephalon, and tectal area of mesencephalon and periaqueductal gray area
10-25% in thalamus

266
Q

what types of pain does substance P mediate

A

lower back pain
arthritis
fibromyalgia

267
Q

how does capsaicin work

A

depletes substance P from local nerve endings to relieve pain

268
Q

if you remove the somatic sensory sensory area of the cortex will you still feel pain?

A

yes, pain has branching pathways (reticular areas)

269
Q

what area of the brain is important for determining the quality of pain

A

cortex

270
Q

where does endogenous analgesia begin

A

reticular formation

periventricular nuclei

periaqueductal gray

271
Q

what does the raphe magnus/nucleus release when stimulated

A

serotonin

272
Q

what stimulates the enkephalin system

A

serotonin

273
Q

when nucleus raphe magnus is stimulated and releases serotonin what happens next

A

the enkephalin neuron inhibits pain transmission in spinal cord

274
Q

what does naloxone do,

A

stops the enkephalin neuron from tying up pain receptor neuron

275
Q

what 4 sites can stimulate endogenous analgesia by blocking the anterior lateral pathway

A

parabrachial nucleous

medullary reticular formation

raphe nuclei

locus coerleus

276
Q

where is serotonin released from in endogenous analgesia pathway

A

raphe nuclei

277
Q

what can cause both presynaptic and postsynaptic inhibition of incoming type C and tybe A delta fibers where they synapse in in dorsal horn

A

enkephalin

278
Q

what is an example of higher brain centers controlling pain

A

placebo affect

279
Q

what are the major endogenous opiates

A

beta-endorphin,
dynorphin

met-enkephalin,
leu-enkephalin,

280
Q

where are enkephalins and dynorphins found

A

brain stem
spinal cord

281
Q

where are beta-endorphins found

A

hypothalamus and pituitary

282
Q

when is the endogenous opiate system activated

A

pain suppression during stress
response to emergency
defense, predation, dominance
adaptation to environmental challenges

283
Q

what is the gate theory of pain

A

stimulation of type A-beta fibers from peripheral tactile receptors can decrease transmission of pain signals

284
Q

what are examples of using the gate theory of pain

A

electrical stim
massage
liniments

285
Q

what form of gate theory of pain can reduce labor pain

A

audioanalgesia

286
Q

how many pain receptors do visceral tissues have

A

few

287
Q

what are common causes of visceral pain

A

ischemia
chemical irritation
spasm of a hollow viscus
over-distension of a hollow viscus

288
Q

where is pain from internal organ often felt

A

distant area of skin, this is referred pain

289
Q

what is phantom pain

A

pain in a missing limb

290
Q

what is the mechanism of referred pain

A

intermingling second order neurons in dorsal horn of spinal cord from skin and viscera (relatedto embyronic development)

291
Q

why do MIs cause L arm pain

A

referred pain

292
Q

what causes the specific location of referred pain of an organ on the skin

A

dermatome of embryonic development

293
Q

where is heart pain localized

A

neck
left shoulder
left arm

294
Q

where is stomach pain localized

A

above umbilicus

295
Q

where is colon pain localized

A

below umbilicus

296
Q

does headache pain come from the actual brain

A

no, brain tissue is insensitive to pain

297
Q

where are the pain senstive areas in the head that are related to HA

A

dura
blood vessels of the dura
venous sinuses
middle meningeal artery

298
Q

what causes eye headaches

A

computer use
needing glasses

299
Q

what causes sinus HA

A

sinusitis

300
Q

HA pain form the superior surface of the tentorum cerbellum forward manifests as what kind of HA

A

cerebral vault HA (top and side of head) meningitus, middle meningeal artery

301
Q

HA pain from the inferior surface of the tentorum cerebellum backward manifests as what kind of HA

A

brain stem and cerebellar vault HA

302
Q

what causes intracranial HAs

A

meningitis
migraine
hangovers

303
Q

what causes migranes

A

vasospasm followed by prolonged vasodilation
vasodilitation stretching of blood vessels

304
Q

what causes hangover HA

A

irritation of meninges by alcohol breakdown products

305
Q

what causes extracranial HAs

A

muscular spasm (tension HA like TMJ, also emotional tension)
sinus HA
eye strain

306
Q

we have more (hot/cold) receptors that we do (hot cold) receptors

A

cold
hot

307
Q

where is the highest density of cold receptors

A

lips

308
Q

T/F freezing cold and burning hot are the same sensations

A

T, when intense it stimulates pain so it feels the same

309
Q

how does cold and hot stimulate nerves

A

changes the metabolic rate around receptor, so changes rate of intracellular reactions and ion interactions

310
Q

cold changes ____________ metabolic rate

A

decrease

311
Q

heat changes __________- metabolic rate

A

increase

312
Q

what are the three sub areas of the motor cortex

A

primary motor cortex
premotor area
supplemental motor area

313
Q

What does the primary motor cortex do?

A

controls the primary movement (like raising arm to climb up ladder)

314
Q

What does the premotor area do?

A

stimulates related muscle groups to allow the primary movement
(shoulder and elbow and hand movement to raise arm when climbing ladder)

315
Q

what are mirror neurons

A

anterior portion- builds image of action while posterior portion puts it into affect (part of premotor)

316
Q

mirror neurons are part of which area of the motor cortex

A

premotor area

317
Q

what does the supplemental motor area do

A

works with premotor area to elicit bilateral movement
(when climbing a ladder tells the rest of the body how to get into position to support primary movement)

318
Q

sensory is the ___________ gyrus

A

posterior

319
Q

motor is the __________ gyrus

A

anterior

320
Q

what supples the broca area

A

first branch of the middle cerebral artery

321
Q

what happens when broca area is damaged like in stroke

A

decreased speech capacity

322
Q

what are specilized areas of the motor cortex

A

broca area
eye fixation and head rotation
hand skills area

323
Q

what does the eye fixation and head rotation area do

A

for coordinated head and eye movement

324
Q

what does damage to the hand skills area lead to

A

motor ataxia,
inability to perform fine hand movements

325
Q

what transmits corticol motor signals on the direct pathway

A

corticospinal tract

326
Q

what pathway transmits discrete detailed movement

A

direct pathway/corticospinal tract

327
Q

what does the indirect pathway of cotricol motor signal

A

basal ganglia,
cerebellum,
brainstem nuclei

328
Q

what percent of the corticospinal tract comes from the primary motor cortex

A

30

329
Q

what percent of the corticospinal tract comes from the supplementary motor areas

A

30

330
Q

what percent of the corticospinal tract comes from the somatic sensory areas

A

40

331
Q

where do the majority of the fibers of the corticospinal tract dessucate

A

pyramid of medulla oblongota

332
Q

after dessucating in the medulla where do corticospinal tract fibers travel

A

lateral corticospinal tracts

333
Q

the majority of every type of nerve fiber dessucate in the

A

medulla oblongota

334
Q

what type of fibers come out of the giant pyramidal cells (betz cells)

A

large fibers with fast transmission (70 m/sec)

335
Q

lateral corticospinal tract crosses over at the

A

medulla oblongata

336
Q

ventral corticospinal tract crosses over at the

A

cervical or spinal area

337
Q

betz cells make up about ______ percent of total fibers

A

3%

338
Q

how many muscle fibers do we have

A

1 million

339
Q

why do we have large betz cell fibers for the motor transmission

A

creates immediate muscle response

340
Q

what is the collateral response of the betz cells

A

send message back to cortex to sharpen the boundaries of the excitatory signal

341
Q

what do motor fibers to caudate nucleus and putamen do

A

controls body posture (spinae erectae)

342
Q

what does the reticular formation do

A

reacts to pain stimuli

343
Q

what connects the hemispheres of the brain

A

corpus callosum

344
Q

how many ways do somatosensory side comunicate to motor side

A

5

345
Q

what tract does the red nucleous work with

A

rubrospinal tract

346
Q

where does the red nucleous and rubrospinal tract receive input from

A

primary motor cortex

347
Q

what is contained in the magnocellular portion of the red nucleus

A

large nuerons similar to betz cells

348
Q

the magnocellular portion of the red nucleus gives rise to the

A

rubrospinal tract

349
Q

the magnocellular portion of the red nucleus has somatotopic organization similar to the

A

primary motor cortex

350
Q

what kind of movement does red nucleus stimulate

A

relatively discrete movement

351
Q

which is more discrete primary motor cortex or red nucleous

A

primary motor cortex

352
Q

what gives sensory feedback for motor control system

A

muscle spindles,
tactile receptors,
propioceptors

353
Q

what does sensory feedback from motor control system do

A

fine tunes muscle movement (how tight to hold a can)

354
Q

what causes auto correction in muscle spindle

A

length mismatch

355
Q

what is an example of compression of skin provides sensory feedback to motor cortex on degree of effectiveness of intended action

A

holding an object, how tight to hold

356
Q

how many giant pyramidal cells are need to cause muscle contraction

A

50-100

357
Q

what layer of the cortex are motor neurons in

A

layer 5

358
Q

what does a lesion in the primary motor cortex cause

A

loss of voluntary control of discrete movement of the distal segments of the limbs

359
Q

what do lesions of the basal ganglia cause

A

muscle spasticity from loss of inhibitory input from accessory areas of the cortex that inhibit excitatory brainstem motor nuclei

360
Q

what part of body does brainstem area contol

A

motor and sensory functions of face and head (cranial nerves)

361
Q

the brainstem is an extension of the

A

spinal cord

362
Q

where are centers for stereotypic movement and equilibrium contained

A

brainstem

363
Q

what muscles support the body against gravity

A

muscles of spinal column and the extensor muscles of the legs

364
Q

what excites the antigravity muscles

A

pontine reticular nuclei

365
Q

what inhibits the antigravity muscles

A

medullary reticular nuclei

366
Q

what tract does the medullary reticular nuclei use to oppose antigravity

A

medullary reticulospinal tract

367
Q

where does the medullary reticulospinal tract receive input

A

corticospinal tract,
rubrospinal tract,
other motor pathways

368
Q

muscles that support the body against gravity are under the influence of the

A

brainstem nuclei

369
Q

what are the components of the vestibular apparatus

A

semicircular ducts (canals)
utricle
saccule

370
Q

where are the maculae located

A

utricle and saccule of the vestibule

371
Q

what does the vestibular apparatus do

A

maintains equilibrium/balance

372
Q

the maculae of the urtical responds to _________- movement

A

horizontal

373
Q

the maculae of the saccule responds to _________ movement

A

verticle

374
Q

what are the layers of the maculae

A

statoconia (weighted pebbles)
gelatinous layer
hair tufts (in gelatin layer)
hair cells
nerve fibers

375
Q

weighted stataconia move in the (same/opposite) direction of movement

A

opposite

376
Q

Where are crista ampullaris/cupula located?

A

in the ampulla of each semicircular canal

377
Q

How many semicircular canals are there?

A

3 (anterior, posterior, lateral)

378
Q

What are the semicircular canals filled with?

A

endolymph

379
Q

what are the small protrusions of the hair cell called

A

stereocilia

380
Q

what is the one large protrusion of the hair cell

A

kinocilium

381
Q

movement towards the kinocilium of the hair cell causes cellular

A

depolarization (opens pores)

382
Q

movement away from the kinocilium of the hair cell causes

A

hyperpolarization

383
Q

what connects the steriocilia and kinocilium

A

filament attachements

384
Q

each semicircular canal has an _________ where the cupula and cristae ampullaris are located

A

ampulla

385
Q

all the semicircular canals are at a _____ degree angle to eachother

A

90

386
Q

what structures tell our brain about equilibrium

A

vestibular apparatus

387
Q

what nerve transmitts the information from the vestibular appartus

A

vestibular nerve

388
Q

where does the vestibular nerve travel

A

vestibular nucleus in medulla oblongata

389
Q

what motor systems use the autonomic nervous systme

A

visceral organs,
blood vessels,
secretory glands

390
Q

where are cell bodies of preganglionic ANS located

A

brain stem or spinal cord

391
Q

axon of the visceral motor neuron is ___________ myelinated and projects to the ____________ ganglia

A

thinly
autonomic

392
Q

cell body of the postganglionic neuron of the ANS are located within the ___________ ganglia and the _____myleninated axon projects to visceral effector cell

A

autonomic
UN

393
Q

what are the divisions of the ANS

A

sympathetic and parasympathetic

394
Q

sympathetic have ________ preganglionic fibers and _______ postganglionics

A

short
long

395
Q

parasympathetics have __________preganglionic fibers and _______ postganglionics

A

long
short

396
Q

All postganglionic parasympathetic neurons release ______.

A

acetylcholine

397
Q

All preganglionic axons of the autonomic nervous system release

A

acetycholine

398
Q

what is pathway of norepi synthesis

A

tyrosine-DOPA-dopamine-norepi

399
Q

what is acetylcholine made up of

A

acetyl CoA and choline

400
Q

what receptors does norepinephrine stimules

A

alpha and beta adrenergic

401
Q

where are alpha receptors located

A

blood vessels (vasoconstriction)

402
Q

Where are beta 1 receptors located?

A

heart (increase HR and contractility)

403
Q

where are beta 2 receptors located

A

skeletal muscle,
lungs
bronchial dilation
vasodilation in muscle
calorigensis
glycogenolysis

404
Q

what receptors does acetylcholine activate

A

nicotinic and muscarinic

405
Q

Where are nicotinic receptors found?

A

neuromuscular junction, synapses between pre and post ganglionic neurons

406
Q

Where are muscarinic receptors found?

A

all effector cells stimulated by postganglionic parasympathetic fibers (glands?)

407
Q

what does sympathetic stimulation of the eye cause

A

pupillary dilation

408
Q

what does parasympathetic stimulation of the eye cause

A

pupillary constriction and accommodation (focusing) of lense

409
Q

what glands does the parasympathetic stimulate

A

nasal,
lacrimal,
salivary,
GI glands

410
Q

what glands does the sympathetic stimulate

A

sweat

411
Q

how does sympathetic affect the GI

A

none

412
Q

how does parasympathetic affect the GI

A

stimulates overall activity and GI smooth muscle

413
Q

how does sympathetic affect the heart

A

increased HR and contractility

414
Q

how does parasympathetic affect the heart

A

decreased HR

415
Q

how does sympathetic affect blood vessels

A

vasoconstriction

416
Q

how does parasympathetic affect blood vessels

A

SOME vasodilation, but this is mostly done by suppressing sympathetic

417
Q

parasympathetic has __________ receptors

A

cholinergic

418
Q

sympathetic has _______- receptors

A

adrenergic

419
Q

which part of the ANS is the adrenal medulla related to

A

sympathetic

420
Q

what percent of epi and norepi is released from adrenal medulla

A

80% epi
20% norepi

421
Q

What is the role of the adrenal medulla?

A

facilitates sympathetic
helps body deal with stress

422
Q

where does sympathetic affect “tone”

A

venous system-constant tone

423
Q

where does parasympathetic affect tone

A

GI

424
Q

where do parasympathetic nerves come from

A

discrete brain stem and sacral 2-4

425
Q

what causes the bodies stress response

A

sympathetic ANS

426
Q

what is affect of SNS response (fight or flight)

A

increased BP, HR, Contractility, blood flow to muscles, blood glucose, metabolic rate, muscle strength, mental activity, blood coagulation

427
Q

what are examples of adrenergic/sympathomimetic drugs

A

phenlyephrine (alphas)
isoproterenol (beta 1 and beta 2)
albuterol (beta 2)

428
Q

what drug can treat collapsing trachea

A

isoproterenol

429
Q

what does the splachnic nerve stimulate

A

viscera

430
Q

where does the splachnic nerve come from

A

sympathetic chain ganglion

431
Q

what are the three pathways in the sympathetic chain ganglion

A

1) enter via the white ramus and terminate

2)enter the sympathetic chain and go up or down a few segements and terminate

3)enter via the white ramus and exit via the splachnic nerve and terminate in a prevertebral ganglia

432
Q

what cranial nerves do the parasympathetic nerves come from

A

3
7
9
10

433
Q

what is cranial nerve 3

A

Occulomotor (eye movement) pupillary sphincter and ciliary muscles

434
Q

what is cranial nerve 7

A

Facial (nerves to nasal, lacrimal, and submandibular gland)

435
Q

what is cranial nerve 9

A

glossopharyngeal (parotid gland)

436
Q

what is cranial nerve 10

A

vagus

437
Q

what is another name for the parasympathetic splachnics

A

sacral segments (2-4)

438
Q

where do the sacral segments of PNS go

A

fibers go to colon, rectum, bladder, genitalia

439
Q

what postganglionic SNS nerves dont release norepi

A

sweat glands,
piloerector muscles,
and select blood vessels

440
Q

what breaks down acetylcholine

A

acetylcholinesterase

441
Q

what drugs increase the release of norepi from storage terminals

A

ephedrine, tyramine, amphetamine

442
Q

where are nicotinic receptors located

A

muscles
ANS preganglion

443
Q

what drug do you not give in glaucoma

A

atropine, use pilocarpine instead

444
Q

what are examples of antimuscarinics

A

atropine, scopolamine

445
Q

what are examples of cholinesterase inhibitors

A

neostigmine, pyridostigmine, ambenonium

446
Q

cessation of cerebral blood flow for ______ to ______ seconds results in LOC

A

5-10

447
Q

what percent of blood goes to brain

A

15% (750-900 ml min)

448
Q

what are the metabolic factors that effect blood flow

A

Co2, H, O2

449
Q

what are the 4 arteries that supply the circle of willis

A

internal carotids and vertebral arteries

450
Q

The brain has a ___ metabolic rate

A

high

451
Q

how can we measure Cerebral blood flow

A

functional MRI
positron emission tomography

452
Q

why do we have the cerebral circle

A

if there is an occlusion on one part, blood flow can still continue from other parts of the circle

453
Q

What is the body’s main source of energy?

A

glucose

454
Q

does the brain require insulin?

A

no

455
Q

what can too much insulin cause in the brain

A

decreased blood glucose, leads to psychosis and coma

456
Q

how long of a glucose supply does the brain have

A

2 min

457
Q

where is the brains supply of glucose

A

glycogen in neurons

458
Q

increased CO2 casues vaso___________

A

dilation

459
Q

what does an increase in CO2 leading to an increase in H in brain lead to

A

increased blood flow
decreased neuronal activity

460
Q

nueral activity of the brain is increased during what acid base condition

A

alkaline

461
Q

how do astocytes increase blood flow

A

nervous activity = glutamate
glutamate = calcium wave
calcium wave = prostaglandins
prostaglandins= dilation

462
Q

what pressures does CBF autoregulation keep

A

60-140

463
Q

what can pressure of >160mm hg in brain lead to

A

blood vessel stretch, eventual rupture and stroke

464
Q

how much CSF is formed each day

A

500 ml (600?)

465
Q

what produces CSF

A

the choroid plexus in the lateral (2), third and fourth ventricles

466
Q

what cushions the brain and allows it to float

A

CSF

467
Q

how much CSF is in the head usually

A

150ml

468
Q

how much volume can the cranial vault hold

A

1600mls

469
Q

all fluids in body (including csf) end up in

A

venous system and then urinated out

470
Q

CSF is similar to

A

plasma
similar concentration

471
Q

where is CSF and vessels in brain

A

sub arachnoid space

472
Q

Where is the perivascular space?

A

space between blood vessel that goes into brain and pia.

473
Q

what is perivascular space

A

specialized lymphatic system of the brain for CSF

474
Q

what med do we use to treat cerebral edema

A

mannitol

475
Q

what happens to CSF in increased ICP

A

CSF is lost

476
Q

what causes papilledema

A

elevated ICP

477
Q

what is normal ICP

A

8-15 mmHg

478
Q

What does the BBB protect the brain from?

A

changes in ions,
AA,
peptides that occur in blood

479
Q

where is BBB located

A

capillary endothelial cells

480
Q

can H go through BBB

A

NO

481
Q

can lipid soluble things go though BBB

A

yes

482
Q

can CO2 go through BBB

A

yes
a gas

483
Q

what are causes of ischemic stroke

A

thrombosis (local clot)
emobolism (clot from somewhere else)
hypotension (schock)
venous thrombosis

484
Q

what are the two types of strokes

A

ischemic and hemorrhagic

485
Q

What percent of strokes are ischemic?

A

87%

486
Q

where do most ischemic strokes come from

A

carotid, cause of carotid sinus

487
Q

what is synaptic fatigue

A

exhaustion of stores of transmitter in synaptic terminals
excitatory synapses are repetitively stimulated at a rapid rate until post synaptic discharge becomes progressively less

488
Q

what is result of synaptic fatigue

A

loss of excitability

489
Q

what does synaptic fatigue protect against

A

excess neuronal activity

490
Q

what is post-tetanic facilitation

A

enhanced responsiveness following repetitive stimulation

491
Q

what ion causes post-tetanic facilitation

A

Ca ions in presynaptic termininal
causes more vesicular release of transmitter

492
Q

what is synaptic delay

A

the process of neurotransmision takes time, from the delay can calculate the number of neurons in a circuit

493
Q

what does electrical stimulation of periaqueductal gray area do

A

relieves pain
inhibits nociceptive projection neurons in dorsal horn of cord

494
Q

analgesia system diagram

A
495
Q

what nerve fibers does enkephalin inhibit

A

type C
type A delta

496
Q

T/f the cortex functions alone

A

False

Cortex never functions alone, always in association with lower centers

497
Q

What are functions of cortex

A

Large memory story
Essential for thought processes
Takes information body gains, processes it and gives response for body

498
Q

What’s another name for the soma

A

Cell body

499
Q

What is the effector part of the neuron

A

Axon

500
Q

What is the sensory portion of the neuron

A

Dendrite

501
Q

Which. Channels and ions create an epsp

A

Cations

Na K Ca

502
Q

What does glutamate do

A

Opens cation channels
Chief excitatory transmitter in CNS

503
Q

What does GABA do

A

Opens Cl- channels
Chief inhibitory transmitter in adult CNS

504
Q

Which ions are involved in creating ipsp

A

K or Cl-

505
Q

What are 4 functions of G protein?

A

-open channels
-activate enzymes (membrane enzymes)
-activate one or more intracellular enzymes
-activates gene transcription

506
Q

What is the inhibitory transmitter mainly in the cord

A

Glycine

507
Q

Classes of neuropeptides

A

Hypothalamic releasing hormones
Pituitary peptides
Peptides that act on gut and brain
Peptides that work on other tissues

508
Q

What sensory receptors are in the epidermis

A

Free nerve endings
Meissner corpuscle
Merkel cells

509
Q

What sensory neurons are in the dermis

A

Ruffini corpuscles

510
Q

What sensory neurons are in the subq layer

A

Pacinian corpuscles

511
Q

Why is there no action potential except in the axon?

A

No Na channels except in the axon

512
Q

What causes sudden cessation of reverberation?

A

Fatigue of synaptic junctions

513
Q

What is the mechanism of fatigue

A

Transmission depletion
Receptor inactivation
Abnormal ion concentration in axon

514
Q

what receptor function is proprioception

A

muscle spindle

515
Q

what receptor function is touch

A

merkel
meissner
pacinian
ruffini

516
Q

what are neuronal pools?

A

groups of neurons with special characteristics of organization

517
Q

Meissner corpuslces location, function, stimuli, adaptation and type

A

location: nonhair skin close to surface

function: motion detection, grip control

stimuli: skin motion, low frequency vibration

adaptation: rapid adaptation

type: A beta

518
Q

merkel location, function, stimuli, adaptation, type

A

location: tip of epidermal ridges

function: form and texture perception

stimuli: edges, points, corners, curvature

adaptation: slow

type: A beta

519
Q

Pacinian corpuscle location function stimuli adaptation receptive field and type

A

location: dermis and deeper tissues

function: perception of distant events through transmitted vibrations

stimuli: vibrations

adaptation: very rapid

receptive field: entire finger or hand

type A beta

520
Q

Ruffini corpuscle location function stimuli adaptation and type

A

location: dermis

function: tangential force; hand shape; motion detection

stimuli: skin stretch

adaptation: slow

type A beta

521
Q

what type of nerve fibers are myelinated free nerve endings

A

type A delta

522
Q

What does substance P do

A

Excited pain fiber nerve ending

523
Q

What does substance P do

A

Excited pain fiver nerve ending

524
Q

What does substance P do

A

Excited pain fiver nerve ending

525
Q

Where do paleospinothalmi. Tract fibers terminate

A

Diffuser in reticular nuclei of medulla pons and mesencephalon

Tectal area of mesencephalon

Periaqueductal gray area

526
Q

What is the mechanism of referred pain

A

Intermingling of second order neurons in dorsal horn of spinal cord from skin and viscera

527
Q

Muscle spindle axon type

A

Ia and II

528
Q

Muscle spindle axon type

A

Ia and II

A&P II (3 decks)

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