Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
3 Store Model of Memory
A
Short-term memory a. capacity: 7 plus or minus 2 seconds b. duration: 15-30 seconds Long-term memory: a. capacity: huge b. duration: 30 seconds to lifetime Sensory memory a. capacity: 9-12 items (generally unclear though) b. duration: 0-1 seconds
2
Q
What did Miller (1956) research?
A
Research Question: What happens at small delays and what is the capacity limit?
a. Digit-Span Task: hold in memory sequences of numbers that vary in size and are spoken to you
Results: memory fails above 7 items (plus or minus 7)
3
Q
What did Brown (1958) and Peterson and Peterson (1959) research?
A
Research Question: What is the duration limit?
Task: Simple recall with disruption;hold and item in memory while counting backwards
Results: Memory becomes impaired at 20-30 seconds
4
Q
What Sperling (1960) research?
A
Research Question: What really happens and really small delays?
Problem: The time it takes to recall ALL of the letters makes the delay extend into many seconds
Results: At small delays (20-1000 ms) 3.3 letters are recalled out of 4. Subjects held 4.5 words out of 12 in the seconds range.
Conclusion: Subjects are holding ten letters and after 1 second, they only hold 3-4 letters (almost whole report).
5
Q
Why did Sperling need to use the Partial Reporting Technique?
A
He needed to know if we held more in memory with an even shorter delay.
6
Q
Different types of Sensory memory
A
Iconic: 1 second
Echoic: 5-7 seconds
9-12 items but unclear
7
Q
Process needed for information to get into Short Term Memory
A
Attention
8
Q
What types of information is held in Short Term Memory?
A
Inner speech, acoustic confusions, and visual info.
9
Q
Experimental use of “confusions” (Conrad)
A
Conrad (1964): visually presented 6-letter sequences to participants and asked them to write them down in order. Sequences were generated randomly. Low confusability versus high confusability.
Results: Conrad found that most of the errors were because of within group switches (75% of errors) and between group errors made up minority (25%). There were still acoustic confusions even though the task was visual and there was acoustic/verbal conversion character code.
10
Q
Experimental use of “confusion” (Baddeley)
A
Baddeley (1966): gave lists of words for participants to hold in their Short Term Memory.
Acoustic words, dissimilar words, and semantic words.
Results: Great interference with acoustic words, no interference with dissimilar words, and mild interference with semantic words. Information held in STM is primarily acoustic
11
Q
Capacity limits for verbal and acoustic codes
A
7 plus or minus 2
12
Q
Luck and Vogel (1997) experiment
A
Using stimuli that were visual with no easy verbal equivalent (Change Detection Task)
Visual capacity: 4 plus or minus 1
- varied the number of features: color and orientation
Results: number of features did not affect (degrade) capacity: WHOLE OBJECT
13
Q
Alvarez and Cavanagh (2004)
A
Used different stimuli with varying number of features
Results: capacity degrades with number of features; supports feature based capacity
14
Q
What method is used to search for the correct info. in STM to complete the task at hand?
A
Short term memory
15
Q
Sternberg (1966)
A
Task: Subjects were given digits (1-6) to hold in their STM.
-when test digit was flashed in screen they needed to say if the test digit was one from the list
-Serially, parallel, or exhaustive
Results: Serial and exhaustive but could have been serial and self-terminating
16
Q
How do we loose info. from STM?
A
Interference
17
Q
Waugh and Norman (1965) N-Back Task
A
Presented subjects with string of 16 numbers to be remembered given a cue number and needed to identify the number that came before it.
Each trial varied the number of digits that followed the cue and ones used before as well.
Results: Memory was better if cue was followed by fewer numbers; length of delay had no effect
Concluded that decay is not as much of a factor.
18
Q
Two types of interference
A
Retroactive interference: interference from B in remembering A
Proactive Interference: interference from A in remembering B
19
Q
Goal-directed Interference Experiments
A
Glenberg et al. (1987): presented participants with a story where the main character either became associated or dissociated with an object
-associated: put on
-disassociated: took off
Results: often remembered association with object; not about decay but usefulness
Radvansky and Copeland (2006): subjects navigate a virtual world where they were to pick up and carry object (0nce object is picked up, it is put in hidden pocket and unseen)
Results: objects less likely to be remembered when subject crossed doorway (doorway effect)
20
Q
Goal-directed Interference (general)
A
Not purely based on competition. If info. is relevant, higher probability of being remembered
21
Q
Working Memory Model (Baddeley)
A
Sensory model linked to visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop. Those link to the episodic buffer and central executive. Those link to visual semantics which link to episodic memory which links to language
22
Q
Phonological Loop
A
Holding storage and manipulating info.in an auditory modality (rehearsal)
23
Q
Visuospatial Sketchpad
A
Holding and manipulating info. in a visual and/or spatial modality
24
Q
Central executive
A
Coordinate attentional processes. Gates the flow of info., controls how info. is manipulated
25
Episodic Buffer
Provides as space to integrate visual and auditory info. and mediate between working memory and long term memory
26
Basic Feature that differentiates Baddeleys model from the 3 component model
They have different storages for different types of information
27
Multiple memories model of memory
Sensory memory---> short term memory--->long term memory
28
Difference between two categories of multiple memories model of memory
Different attributes of memory is held, different storage features, different brain structures are involved.
- hippocampal dependent versus hippocampal independent
- declarative and non-declarative
29
What is the problem with these categorical systems?
Differing decay rates
30
Declarative versus Non-declarative
Declarative: explicit, episodic, semantic
| Non-declarative: Implicit, procedural memory, priming, and classical conditioning
31
How is this similar to 3 component model?
Also includes semantic, short term, and long term memory
32
Serial Position Effect
The likelihood of recalling a word from a word list depends on its position in the list
33
Primacy Effect versus Recency Effect
Primacy Effect: High probability of being remembered because it's first in the list
Recency Effect: High probability of being remembered because it's last in the list
34
Rundus (1971)
Had students rehearse out loud as they memorized the list of words. Amount of rehearsal depended on the position. Correlated with probability of recall.
35
Fischler et al. (1970)
Had students rehearse each word the same number of times. Primacy effect eliminated because it is due to info. reaching LTM via rehearsal. Recency effect due to STM; if student was distracted after one minute after list presentation, recency effect goes away.
36
Factors that influence encoding information into LTM
Repetition: the more often you experience an event of object, the more likely it will be remembered
Code
Levels of Processing
37
Difference between massed and spacing trials?
Spacing is practicing over time (e.g., studying every other day) MORE SUCCESSFUL
Mass is cramming (me rn)
38
What code is information stored into LTM?
Semantic encoding
Sachs (1967): had subjects listen to a story then presented sentences that the subjects needed to determine if it was a sentence from the story or not.
-visual, acoustic/verbal
39
Semantic versus Episodic memory
Semantic: specific facts ABOUT life (behavioral response)
Episodic: memory of specific events in life (conscious experience)
40
Three sources of evidence that prove that semantic and episode memory are different
1. Different subjective qualities
2. Different objective qualities
3. Different brain systems:
- brain damage
- brain activation
- double dissociation
41
Why is this difference more related than we think?
They are just re-constructed into different representations and expressions
42
Semantic versus non-declarative
Semantic memories refer to the memory of meaning and understanding while non-declarative memory refers to habits and skills
Closely related possibly because unconsciousness
43
Autobiographical memory relation to semantic and episodic memory
Autobiographical memory is the ability to remember facts and experiences related to one's self. Semantic memory could be remembering facts about one's self and episodic memory could be remembering the experiences we go through.
44
Levels of Processing theory of memory
Deep versus superficial
45
Orientation Tasks
As words are presented to the subject, the type of processing that they will do is directed by asking questions.
- structural "does the word have this letter in it"
- phonemic "does the word rhyme with this"
- semantic "what does the word refer to"
46
Craik and Lockhart (1972)
The likelihood of remembering depends in the information extracted from the object, and the type of processing required.
They were surprised about the amount of incidental learning.
Results: Latency to answer question
-smallest (fastest) for case, then rhyme, then semantics (slowest)
Recognition
-worst for case, then rhyme, then semantic (best for recognition)
47
Incidental learning and why is it used in this context? Is LOP involved in intentional learning as well?
Incidental learning actually proves we retain more than we think we do. Yes, LOP is involved in intentional learning as well.
Hyde and Jenkins experiment proved that LOP is involved in intentional learning.
48
Does LOP affect encoding of information into the STM?
NO!
Rose et al. (2010): used the same paradigm and concluded that LOP does not affect information recalled from STM
-STM involves verbal and visual cues
-LTM emphasizes semantic codes
49
Maintenance versus Elaborative Rehearsal
The more we elaborate on the meaningfulness of the information to be remembered, the more likely it will be remembered.
Elaborative rehearsal has higher LOP because it goes into more detail.
50
Craik and Watkins (1973)
Students listened to a series of words and were asked to report the last word presented that starts with a particular letter
Results: 12% of words recalled were replaced immediately. 15% of words recalled had 12 intervening words.
PURE REHEARSAL HAS NO INFLUENCE AT CERTAIN TIMES
51
Precise versus imprecise elaboration
Both under elaborative rehearsal.
Stein and Bransford (1979): Students were given sentences and were told it was a comprehension study.
Results:
Group 1: recalled 4.2 words out of 10 (simple sentence)
Group 2: recalled 2.2 words out of 10 (imprecise)
Group 3: recalled 7.4 words out of 10 (precise)
Group 4: recalled 5.8 words out of 10 (self-elaboration)
52
Main problem with LOP? And why does LOP help with memory?
We cannot measure LOP independently.
Helps memory by:
1. creating a different code
2. taking longer to process which creates a better memory
3. the elaboration: the amount of associations being made
53
Cued-Retrieval
activation from information from LTM is initiated by cues (context) in the current situation.
54
What information becomes a cue?
Simple cues, complex cues (contexts), emotion-motivational states
55
State-Dependent Learning
Recall of information learned in one situation is better if the testing situation is the same or similar.
56
Prospective versus Retrospective Memory
Prospective: Memory for things we need to do in the future
Retrospective: Memory for past events
Problematic for Prospective memory because it is about what we have to do in the future and almost all memory is about past events and controlling behavior in the current situation.
57
7 Sins of memory
1. Absent-mindedness: failure to store or recall due to lapse of attention
2. Blocking: temporary loss to access to information
3. Transience: slow loss of information over time
4. Misattribution: attributing information to the wrong source
5. Suggestibility: incorporation of new information into old memories
6. Bias (in recall): Prior beliefs skew how we recall memories
7. Persistence: memories that are unrelenting, intrusive, unrepresentative
1. Storage failure
2. Interference
3. Decay
4. Memory Distortion
58
What is Interference Theory a Theory of?
Inability to remember is caused by the act of recalling some information creating the inhibition of the recall of other information
59
3 causes of interference theory
1. Contextual Ambiguity: The context of a situation identifies when and under what conditions events occur. This information can also disambiguate which events happen at which time. If the two contexts for two different events are similar, recall of the events can become mixed.
2. Memory Antagonism: Related memories will compete for activation. Once one memory becomes activated, it will inhibit the retrieval of competing information.
3. Memory of Meaning: Our memory is designed for meaning. A fundamental part of this is to store new information as interpreted through our knowledge or understanding of the world; so it makes sense to us (proactive interference).
60
Tip of Tongue Phenomena
When we know what something is but we cannot name it, it is at the tip of our tongue.
Brown (1991): Tip of Tongue Phenomena usually occurs at least once a week but increases with age. Most are triggered by names of personal acquaintances. Confusions occur because of similar meanings or spellings (mostly spellings). 50% of the time we remember in one minute. 17-41% of the time, the answer comes spontaneously with no conscious effort.
61
Decay
The loss of information simply due to time. Information just is not in memory store.
62
4 factors that increase likelihood of decay occurring
LACK OF IMPORTANCE:
1. Events which do not have a meaningful relationship with other events in memory or in common experiences (it is not used)
2. Details of event which do not provide meaningful information to understand an event
3. Expected: was not surprising or contrary to your cognitive expectations
4. Unemotional event
63
Does decay occur at the same rate?
Not at all! We have initial rapid loss, and then after time, decay becomes slower.
64
What is memory distortion (memory construction)?
The process of storing memories is not a simple storing of a snapshot, but the creation of a
meaningful narrative about the event. During this process, memories can become distorted
or contain false information (or be completely false).
65
What is the goal of memory and how does it suggest that distortion is a part of the LTM design?
The goal of memory is to create a meaningful understanding of past events which, then, can
be used to successfully behave in the current situation.
1. Information collected about Event A through perception/attention is incomplete, often
containing gaps and a sporadic amount of detail. Sometimes, those gaps need to be filled
in with assumptions.
2. The meaningfulness of Event A is constructed using information from Event A, but also
from other related events which occurred before, and after, Event A.
66
Three factors that cause distortion
1. Encoding errors (vagueness)
-Lack of detail acquired during the event (divided attention, quick event)
Lengthy retention intervals
Identifying a culprit of a different race
Stress during the event
2. Information given after the event: Either explicit or implicit
3. Misattribution: Source Amnesia
-The source of information is often forgotten (Source Amnesia). In cases where the
source is then asked for, people will often make assumptions as to the context.
But then this information becomes part of the memory, and is believed to be true.
67
Experimental evidence of three factors that cause distortion
```
Loftus et al., (1978)
Phase 1: Subjects show slides of a car
traveling to an intersection
Phase 2: Subjects asked questions
about the slide show
Phase 3: Subjects shown slides
-What did the subjects see. stop sign or yield sign?
Results: Group who were asked the consistent questions (G1) were 34% more accurate (stop sign) as compared to those asked questions involving the yield sign (G2).
```
68
Post-Identification Feedback Effect
Line-Up Research
When participants were told that one of the other people in the line-up confessed:
~ 61% of those who made an identification, changed their minds and ID the
confessor
~ 50% who did not ID someone initially, positively identified the confessor
If they were told they ID the wrong person, subjects immediately doubted their
original identification.
69
Argument for denying repressed memories
Possible that some are false = All of them Are!
1. Some therapists may inadvertently plant ideas in their clients heads.
~The techniques used in therapy are similar to techniques
used to induce false memories in the lab.
2. Inducing False Memories can be done (in the lab) and it can be done
easily
3. Showing that implanted memories are false is often extremely hard
to do.
~ they end up being “he said, she said” debates
70
Why is this argument stupid?
One, Some or All cases of Repressed Memory could be False memories...or
NONE are. Can’t show them as not false or not repressed.
71
What five things can we do to improve the storage in LTM?
1. Repetition, and space them out!!
2. Encoding Strategies: Mnemonics!
3. Consider Cued-Retrieval!!!
5. Strategize a plan (Stick to it!) and Evaluate the plan (Make a change!)
4. Use it!!
72
What is the nonofficial 6th strategy to enhance information in LTM?
Sleep! (specifically REM):
~ Disruption of REM sleep interferes with visual discrimination learning
~ Learning is facilitated with increased REM episodes
~ Insomniacs have consolidation impairments
73
When is the best time to self-reflect?
Before test but not right after studying.
74
Difference between theory and experience based judgements
Theory based judgements is based off of what we think and we make a judgement while experience based judgements are based off of our experiences and they predict how we will react in similar situations.
75
Koriat (2009)
Subjects were to study word-pair lists and be tested either immediately, 1
day later or 1 week later.
Experiment 1: subjects did not actually study the words, but were simply asked to
predict their ability for each delay.
Result: Subjects predicted that their
ability to recall would decline with longer delays.
Experiment 2: subjects actually studied the words, and were asked to predict their
ability for each delay after the study session.
Then, they were tested at the delays.
Result: Actual performance decreased with increasing delays.Regardless of the delay group, all students predicted the same performance level!!
76
Retrieval Fluency
Experiential judgments of learning are based on the fluency or ease of recall. The problem with making this assessment immediately after studying is that you are assessing
“ease of recall” with information still in your STM, not LTM!
Delay assessment (even by 30 seconds, but I would suggest 20-30 minutes), and you assessment of memory would be much better.
77
7 Mnemonics
~ Categorical Clustering: Organize list of words into categories
~ Interactive Images: Create interactive images from the words
~ Peg-word System: Associate each word with a word previously memorized
~ Method of Loci: Visualize a room, and place each word in a distinct location
~ Acronym: Create an expression where each letter represents a word
~ Acrostic: Create a sentence for each word to remember
~ Keyword System: Create interactive image which links the sound and meaning
of the to be remembered word to the same for a familiar word
78
Roediger (1980)
Many of these boil down to elaborating on the information either semantically or visually.
79
What two conclusions were made in class in regards to Roediger?
1. How well each works is somewhat dependent on the type of test (retrieval needed)
2. Visualization seems to work well in both cases
80
What is a concept? What are the difference features of each?
The fundamental unit of abstract knowledge. a mental representation that picks out a set of entities or a category. That is, concepts refer, and what they refer to are categories.
a. Structural Features
b. Behavioral Features
c. Relational Features
d. Abstract (conceptual) Features
81
How is concept different from a script or schema?
schema is an outline or image universally applicable to a general conception, under which it is likely to be presented to the mind while concept is an understanding retained in the mind, from experience, reasoning and/or imagination; a generalization, or abstraction
82
Difference between natural, artificial, and ad hoc categories
Natural Categories:
Groupings that occur naturally in the world
Artificial Categories:
Groupings that are designed or invented by humans to serve
particular purposes
Ad Hoc Categories:
Groupings that are designed for a specific situation and time (for the
moment); often by an individual. E.G. “Things you can write on”
Dr. Sparks says:
~ Needed when there is no well accepted concept
~ Not always stable; may stop being used after that one situation.
~ if useful, then could be solidified as a community accepted concept.
83
Assimilation versus Accommodation
Assimilation: incorporating ‘new’ knowledge into existing mental structures without
altering the structure (too much)
Accommodation: Incorporating ‘new’ information which is in conflict with our mental
structures by or adding mental structures
84
What does "feelings of typicality" mean in terms of the members of a category?
1. Family Resemblance (thorough, logical, assessment)
2. Frequency of use: The more often a member is used as an exemplar, the more typical
3. Initial Concept Exemplar: The first member to define the category, defines typicality
The more similar to the initial member, the greater typicality
4. Prototype Similarity: The more similar to a “prototype” the more typical.
Prototype: a representation based on the average for each feature (of the members)
85
How are the 4 ideas about typicality determined?
1. The information available
If causal-relationship information is available, people will use a Theory-Feature Based Rule to
classify
2. The nature of the information
In Reeds experiment, the features could be averaged (e.g. size) which facilitates the Prototype
rule. Experiments with features that do not average, Feature Frequency rule is used.
3. The number of examples
The few examples given, people tend to use the Exemplar approach, over the Prototype rule.
4. The amount of practice given
86
How is family resemblance calculated?
Rosch and Mervis (1975): Gave subjects a category with 20 members, and asked
them to list the attributes of each member.
Family Resemblance: a measure of how frequently the attributes of a member are shared by other members. The Family Resemblance score correlates very well with “feelings of typicality"
87
Feature Frequency Modeling
Feature frequency rule: category is selected that has the most features that match the target
object. Assess the frequency of features of members, then compare to target.
88
Prototype Modelling
Prototype Rule: generate a sense of typicality, and compare target to (single) prototype.
89
Exemplar Modeling
Nearest Neighbor Rule: Select the category with a (single) member that is most similar to target
Average Distance Rule: Calculate the average amount of similarity target has with each member
of a category, then select the category with the highest average
90
Theory Based Modelling
a rule
91
Two hierarchical models of how concepts are held as a network in LTM?
Semantic Network Approach and Connectionist Models
92
What is connectionism?
the ability to make intellectual connections between different, and sometimes seemingly unconnected, areas of knowledge
93
What are the good and bad features of the cognitive process models?
```
Benefits:
1. No assumptions as to how the system
is structured: the same structure can
represent many things
2. Seems to act like the brain works
(neurons).
3. Partial damage to the network seems
to cause similar problems as brain
damage (graceful degradation)
4. Explains generalization of knowledge
```
```
Problem:
1. The math behind these systems is
extremely complicated
2. Does not seem to reflect our
subjective experience
```
94
Benefits of Categorical Memory System
```
Benefits:
1. No assumptions as to how the system
is structured: the same structure can
represent many things
2. Seems to act like the brain works
(neurons).
3. Partial damage to the network seems
to cause similar problems as brain
damage (graceful degradation)
4. Explains generalization of knowledge
```
95
What are the three characteristics or biases if S1 generated beliefs?
1. Give a Rapid Answer
2. Give a Singular Answer,
3. Give an answer that will most likely be Helpful
a. Situation Related (Cued Retrieval)
b. Typical (applicable to most situations)
* * Based on a subset of attributes (average or prototype)
96
What problems come with generating a "belief" solely through a categorical system?
Problem: But our beliefs are going to be biased based on the structure of
our Knowledge System.
