Exam 2

Question 1

What is working memory?

Answer 1

Working memory^ (short-term memory)*
• A system for processing information so that it can be acted upon, manipulated, or rehearsed sufficiently that consolidation can begin
• Focuses* perception (about seven bits)
• From few seconds to <2 minutes

Know that recalling digits forward or backwards and performing mental arithmetic are tasks that require working memory.

Question 2

Encoding^ (acquisition*)

Answer 2

o Input from cortical area are filtered, sent to structures for initial memory processing
 Attention* or perception* may affect this stage

Question 3

Consolidation/storage

Answer 3

o Expression of genes, protein synthesis (for long-term memory), alternation and strengthening of synapses
o Creates a “permanent” record, which may have to be renewed in order to not be lost (unable to be retrieved)

Question 4

Memorizing the information in this course and autobiographic memory are examples of what type of memory?

Answer 4

Explicit memory*

Question 5

Retrieval^ (from long term memory)

Answer 5

• A memory is retrieved* and reconsolidated*
• Is an active constructive* process
• During reconsolidation*, the memory is liable and then is restored as a new memory
• Reconstruction often strengthens* “memory”

Question 6

Which structure/area is particularly critical for associating stimuli and forming long-term, episodic memories?

Answer 6

• Hippocampus

Question 7

Consolidation

Answer 7

Both “Involves gene expression” and “May also occur during retrieval, given that there may be reconsolidation”

Question 8

Explicit memory^:

Answer 8

Ability to store and retrieve a memory and to know that one has retrieved it.

• Encoding is improved if individual actively reorganizes* information
• Specific structure* and circuits specialize in specific explicit memories*
• Example: memorizing information from this course

Question 9

Explicit memory^:

Answer 9

Ability to store and retrieve a memory and to know that one has retrieved it.

• Encoding is improved if individual actively reorganizes* information
• Specific structure* and circuits specialize in specific explicit memories*
• Example: memorizing information from this course

Question 10

Hippocampus/temporal lobe* (explicit long term memory)

Answer 10

Responsible for episodic* memory (memory of episodes) for autobiographical episodes

Hippocampus* sends info* to VMPFC*
o Results in awareness of self with a past and future (autonoetic awareness)
• In sum, the hippocampus* and the medial temporal cortex* are involved in forming, maintaining, and retrieving* explicit* memories
o One recollects* having encountered the item, not just that it seems familiar

Question 11

Semantic memory*

Answer 11

Facts, general knowledge

Question 12

The prefrontal cortex is involved in encoding and retrieving semantic and episodic memory, especially autobiographic memory.

Answer 12

True

Question 13

Amnesia

Answer 13

loss of memory

Question 14

Anterograde amnesia*

Answer 14

impairment in learning* new information after^ a lesion in the hippocampus or medial temporal cortex

Question 15

Anterograde amnesia*

Answer 15

impairment in learning* new information after^ a lesion in the hippocampus or medial temporal cortex

o Confabulation*: imaginary (but plausible) memories to fill in memory gaps; not intentional

o Failure to learn new events (of self or others), words, routes

o But normal at learning motor skills, faces, working memory tasks

Question 16

“Anterograde amnesia” refers to memory loss of information learned prior to a lesion.

Answer 16

False

Question 17

Anoxia/hypoxia

Answer 17

oxygen deprivation

• particularly effects the hippocampus
• Cause of amnesia

Question 18

Anoxia/hypoxia

Answer 18

oxygen deprivation

• particularly affects the hippocampus
• Cause of amnesia

Question 19

Alzheimer’s disease initially is anterograde amnesia due to the dysfunction of the hippocampus/ medial temporal cortex.

Answer 19

T
• Eventually, retrograde* amnesia with temporal gradient that worsens with time
o Eventually severe dementia*

Question 20

Anoxia or hypoxia may cause amnesia (dysfunction of explicit memory) due primarily to decreased oxygen in the

Answer 20

Hippocampus

Question 21

Selective attention

Answer 21

focuses on what is most relevant at the moment, including features and location

o May be nonconscious or conscious
o Underlies other mental functions
o Impairment* is common* in patients with brain lesions or mental disorders

Question 22

Selective attention is critical for many other mental functions but is seldom impaired in patients with brain injury or dysfunction.

Answer 22

False

Question 23

Attention networks

Answer 23

1. Alerting
2. Orienting
3. Executive

Question 24

Alerting system

Answer 24

RAS, releases NE from locus coeruleus, for fast alerting* to novel stimuli
o Prepares prefrontal, posterior parietal cortices
o Activates ACC to suppress unneeded circuits

Question 25

Level of alertness

Answer 25

o Can vary over a continuum o May be affected by metabolism, circadian rhythms, fatigue, drugs, medical conditions, brain lesions o Precisely measured by EEG o Observe changes in level in your clients (e.g. drugs, delirium)

Question 26

Two orienting networks:

Answer 26

o Dorsal frontoparietal attention system* - Orienting to space/location* o Ventral frontoparietal attention system* - Orienting to features*

Question 27

Orienting: Dorsal network

Answer 27

Dorsal* network o Frontal eye fields*, posterior superior parietal* cortex o Top-down process for visuospatial orientation* to space/location* o Goal-directed* maintaining attention* o Right* parietal is dominant

Question 28

Orienting: Ventral network

Answer 28

o Posterior portion of ventral parietal cortex* and ventral prefrontal cortex* o Activated by sensory input to orient* to relevant features* o Reorientation* to unexpected stimuli

Question 29

Executive* control networks

Answer 29

 DLPFC-parietal* for transient control at beginning* of tasks - Prefrontal lesions may cause difficulty alternating attention  Cingulo-opercular* network for sustained* control - Compromised of ACC and frontal operculum (medial prefrontal plus anterior insula)

Question 30

Of the three orienting networks, the _________ directs attention to space and keeps us focused, the ____________ directs attention to features, and the ______________ control attention at beginning of tasks and when attention must be alternated.

Answer 30

dorsal network; ventral network; executive control networks

Question 31

Attention* may increase...

Answer 31

Synchrony* - Attention causes simultaneous* action potentials to be sent to relevant neurons making them more likely to fire May occur optimally at 40Hz (gamma frequency) May be major key to the binding problem May be deficient in schizophrenia

Question 32

DLPFC* and ACC* are critical for self-control of...

Answer 32

Emotion* and cognition* - Children’s attentional systems do not begin to develop until ages 3-4 - Until then, they respond to sensory events in primarily a reflexive manner

Question 33

Failures of attention:

Answer 33

- Stress* interferes with executive control - Divided attention*  Much more limited* and difficult* than people think  DLPFC is involved, but its capacity is limited  Often Impairs* attention to both tasks

Question 34

Divided attention is a function that normal individuals can do quite well.

Answer 34

False

Question 35

Attention: DMN

Answer 35

Attention networks compete with the default mode network - Natural tendency is for DMN and social cognition to dominate - Must be deactivated when it may interfere

Question 36

Neurodevelopment* starts on...

Answer 36

Day 18 of gestation |  Particularly critical to avoid stress*, most drugs*, toxins* during the first trimester*

Question 37

Neurogenesis* gliogenesis*:

Answer 37

Growing new neurons, glia | - Mostly complete by end of second time

Question 38

Which period is the most critical for a woman to avoid drugs, stress, or toxins?

Answer 38

First trimester, especially the first 18 days of pregnancy

Question 39

Neuronal selection*

Answer 39

Selecting best neurons |  Mostly complete by end of second trimester

Question 40

Migration*

Answer 40

Moving to destinations |  Starts by eight weeks; mostly complete by birth

Question 41

Differentiation*

Answer 41

Specializing

Question 42

Myelination*

Answer 42

Forming myelin

Question 43

Synaptogenesis*

Answer 43

Forming synapses: - Occur before birth - But many new synapses* are formed during childhood, especially in the prefrontal cortex*

Question 44

Competitive elimination*

Answer 44

Reorganization, restructuring, pruning o Started at age six in prefrontal cortex, but is particularly intense during late childhood*, adolescence*  50% of synapses eliminated by late adolescence

Question 45

From age 6-19

Answer 45

o Decrease* in prefrontal excitatory* synapse | o Increase* in prefrontal inhibitory* synapse

Question 46

Most myelination* of prefrontal cortex* not complete* until ...

Answer 46

Early adulthood*

Question 47

Genetics*

Answer 47

The study of genes. o Gene: a DNA sequence coding for transcription into mRNA that will be translated into a specific protein* (a sequence of amino acids)

Question 48

Genotype

Answer 48

The specific gene or set of genes related to a phenotype (observable physical property related to gene or genes)

Question 49

Genome*:

Answer 49

The sequence* of DNA that you inherited. - The genome is the same in every cell in one’s body - There are 23,000 genes in the human body (<2% of DNA) - Much of DNA transcribes mRNAs that do not get translated into specific proteins that help to control the expression* of genes

Question 50

Epigenetics*

Answer 50

is the study of chemical modifications to chromatin (the composition of chromosomes made of DNA plus proteins)

Question 51

Epigenome*

Answer 51

Chemicals and proteins that can attach to chromatin and control gene expression*.  Whether specific genes are expressed* (turned on) or silenced* (turned off

Question 52

Phenotype:

Answer 52

The observable physical property which is the result of the genome and epigenome

Question 53

Epigenome may be...

Answer 53

o Permanent* for the life of the cell and its progeny - Cell differentiation determined during development o Temporary* o Heritable* (passed on to offspring)  May occur during development* (in utero) or later*  Caused by Neurocommunication, genes, drugs, environment - Early trauma, stress, toxins, drugs of abuse - Leading to psychiatric disorders* o Therapy, Rx drugs, learning - Leading to a better life

Question 54

Epigenomics

Answer 54

The study of the epigenome  Either in a particular type of cell or entire body  Is providing insights into an individual’s health status or possible response to therapies

Question 55

Epigenetic factors...

Answer 55

Both "Can affect phenotypes" and "Include chemical modifications to chromatin"

Question 56

Epigenetic factors can increase the risk for psychiatric disorders but cannot lead to positive changes.

Answer 56

False

Question 57

Epigenetic effects can affect an individual but cannot be passed to one’s offspring.

Answer 57

False

Question 58

Aversive* environments during pregnancy* or postnatal* period cause...

Answer 58

Teratogenicity*, learning disabilities*  Toxins, stress, certain drugs (including alcohol, nicotine, caffeine) injury, hormones, microbiota (gut bacteria, vaginal tract) o May cause epigenetic* effects

Question 59

The combination of early trauma and adult stress

Answer 59

Both "Can accelerate aging (and associated diseases)" and "Increase the risk for mental disorders"

Question 60

Aversive Events

Answer 60

Effects of learning disabilities* early* in life may impair mental physical health in adulthood*

Question 61

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)*

Answer 61

Small brains, learning disabilities, low IQ’s, hyperactivity, physical abnormalities o Worse if mother drinks during first trimester, particularly if binge drinks or smokes cigarettes o The leading* cause of mental retardation* o Even one drink per day lowers IQ o Epigenetic abnormalities in male sperm

Question 62

Combination of early trauma* (emotional, sexual, physical) + adult stress*:

Answer 62

o Accelerates aging*, as measured by epigenetic changes o May involve many diseases associated with aging o Is not considered a major* risk* factor for various mental disorders* (e.g. mood and anxiety disorders)

Question 63

Closed Head Injury^ (CHI)

Answer 63

Much more common* and complicated* than penetrating head injury. ``` - Direct Impact Effects Acceleratiion/deceleration effects • Contusions (bruising) and bleeding • Shearing/tearing • Linear and rotational forces (torque) • Metabolic disturbances o Excitotoxicity: Glu hyperactivity, resulting in a toxic level of free radicals ``` • *Axonal shearing* or injuries* to cytoarchitecture* o Primarily affect* processing speed/efficiency*, attention*, working memory*, executive functions* • Brain swelling*, edema*

Question 64

Coup*

Answer 64

where the initial impact takes place

Question 65

Contra Coup*

Answer 65

Second impact - both damage to cells and vessels

Question 66

Most impacted lobes...

Answer 66

Primarily to frontal and temporal lobes, causing attention, memory, emotional, executive deficits

Question 67

For which of the following conditions is comprehensive neuropsychological assessment most important due to the potential severity and complexity of impairment?

Answer 67

CHI

Question 68

mTBI (concussion)

Answer 68

* May occur w/o LOC or direct head impact * But may be significant* (deficits in processing speed, attention, word retrieval, short-term memory, PTSD, fatigue, irritability; depression, anxiety) * Symptoms usually last fewer than

Question 69

Persistent Postconcussion Syndrome*

Answer 69

• Symptoms, deficits that last >three months (10% of patients) Good predictors: o Poorer premorbid neuropsychological status, personality traits, maladaptive coping style early after injury, preinjury mental health problems, lower education o Stress at the time of injury o Current emotions, environmental demands, lack of social support • Consider emotional, secondary gain, litigation factors

Question 70

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy* (CTE)

Answer 70

* Progressive neurodegenerative disease caused by multiple concussions* or head impacts * Accumulation or defensive* tau* (a protein that stabilizes microtubules in neurons; also occur in Alzheimer’s disease) • Cognitive, affective, behavioral (disinhibition, emotional lability) motor symptoms • Pathology and symptoms often overlap with other neurodegenerative disorders o Makes clinical diagnosis unfeasible; made only at autopsy • Most commonly associated with football (North American), ice hockey, boxing, mixed martial arts, wrestling, rugby • Some experts believe that multiple* head impacts* pose greater* risk than concussions per se

Question 71

Some experts believe that multiple head impacts pose a greater risk than concussions per se for developing CTE.

Answer 71

True

Question 72

Diathesis-stress model^

Answer 72

Vulnerability + stress may be a major* factor in many mental disorders • Diathesis - Genetic, epigenetic, biological factors • Stress - Especially early stress/trauma or chronic

Question 73

Stressor^

Answer 73

event that has an arousing effect

Question 74

Stress responses^

Answer 74

Behavioral, physiological responses to cope with stressor - context* and degree of control* matter o Degree of response o When it occurs and with what other factors (diathesis-stress) • Physically* stressors also exist - Surgery, excessive exercise

Question 75

Chronicity*

Answer 75

Chronically* being stressed - major* problem today in humans

Question 76

Stress: “Fast” Response Biochemical Pathway

Answer 76

o “Fast” response by norepinephrine (NE)* and epinephrine (adrenaline)* released via the sympathetic* nervous system (SNS)  Effects* in seconds*, only lasts* minutes*  Prepares body for sudden burst* of activity

Question 77

Stress “Slow” Response Biochemical Pathway

Answer 77

* Slow response by cortisol released via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis* * Starts in minutes* to hours, may last hours*

Question 78

The “slow response” to a stressor involves the release of norepinephrine and epinephrine (adrenaline) and the “fast response” by cortisol

Answer 78

False

Question 79

Cortisol: Normal

Answer 79

• Prepares body for longer-lasting* adaptations • Restore* energy that has been expended - By increasing glucose* (which enters cells and is converted to energy) - Promotes gluconeogenesis* (making glucose), lipolysis (converting fat to glucose) or protein catabolism* (converting protein to glucose) - Decreases inflammation • Cortisol shuts down* systems not immediately needed to deal with a stressor - Inhibits* immune system - Can lead to infections if excessive or chronic

Question 80

High Cortisol Effects

Answer 80

High cortisol and CRF/CRH (corticotropin-releasing factor/ corticotropin-releasing hormone) inhibit* reproductive system • Decrease libido • Cause amenorrhea or dysmenorrhea • Cause infertility Excessive cortisol inhibits* slow wave sleep • Decreases* restorative* functions (restoring energy and repair, especially in neurons) • Predisposes* to depression/mania* High cortisol increases* o Appetite/ weight gain* o Glucose intolerance*  Increased risk* of insulin-resistant diabetes* (Type 2 diabetes), NIDDM) • Type 2: resistant to insulin • Type 1: body does not produce insulin • Insulin is needed to help glucose get into cells/ and decrease high glucose levels in blood High cortisol suppresses* thyroid* function • Making someone have hypothyroid function • Thyroid is crucial for healthy metabolism o Cortisol increases abdominal fat* Particularly dangerous for cardiovascular* system, predisposes body to insulin-resistant diabetes Damages arteries*, leading to atherosclerosis*, hypertension

Question 81

Inhibited Slow-Wave Sleep

Answer 81

• Decreases* synthesis of proteins* o Causes muscle weakness* • Decreases release of growth hormone* which leads to osteoporosis o Student growth and failure to thrive in children  Cortisol from stressed mother crosses* placental barrier

Question 82

Stress/cortisol (especially if excessive or chronic) may increase the risk for depression, anxiety, and cognitive dysfunction, but, fortunately, it does not inhibit the immune and reproductive systems because these systems are not part of the CNS.

Answer 82

False