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Intro to Sociology > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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Sociology 101 flashcards
1
Q

semantic memory

A
  • knowledge of the world
  • not tied to a particular event (decontextualized)
  • organized by meaning or content

-ie: what is taller? grass or trees?

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2
Q

episodic

A
  • something you experience
  • tied to particular event (contextualized)
  • organized temporally
  • amnesia affects episodic memory much more than semantic memory
  • ie: what did you have for breakfast today?
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3
Q

decontextualization

A

as certain events/objects keep recurring, you knowledge of them is less tied to the contexts in which you encountered them—> become semantic memories

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4
Q

K.C. from text

A

lost episodic but not semantic memory

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5
Q

Butters & Cormak (1986)

A
  • Amnesic through Korsakoff’s syndrome
  • written autobiography–> tested him on semantic memory as recorded in autobio
  • recognized scientists mentioned
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6
Q

Lewis & Anderson (1976): Fantasy Facts

A

-taught subjects fantasy facts about famous people
-had subjects verify sentences that described real/fantasy facts
prof: goldstein: semantic + episodic memory interact so that episodic memories become more like semantic memories over time
ie: old memories are “known,”; recent memories are “remembered”
prof murphy: the principles that govern episodic memory are the same as those that govern semantic memory
-as context is lost–> old episodic memories act like semantic memories –> theyre in the same system

Conclusion:

  • episodic & semantic memories do not seem to be in different systems
  • amnesia affects both
  • memory for one affects the other
  • some older episodic memories seem very much like semantic memories
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7
Q

Why do SM and EM seem to differ?

A
  • contents often differ
  • SM is usually much more familiar + more engrained, encountered across many contexts
  • more resistant to loss + less tied to a specific event BUT that
  • rules of encoding + retrieval seem the same for both
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8
Q

explicit memory

A

-direct tests; declarative memory; conscious memory
you are asked to remember something or to reproduce something that happened earlier
-depends on perceptual details
-affected by amnesia
-relational`

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9
Q

implicit memory

A
  • indirect tests; procedural memory; unconscious memory; skill learning
  • you are asked to do some other task and an earlier event might influence your performance on that task
  • does not depend on perceptual details
  • generally not affected by amnesia
  • not relational
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10
Q

Cohen & Squire (1980): Classic implicit memory study of mirror-reading

1) What kind of memory is this?
2) Are people asked to recall or recognize something
3) Does earlier experience affect their performance on the task
4) How do you prove that 2 kinds of memory are in different systems

A

-when asked to read the words twice, subject improves

1) implicit– repetition priming
2) no
3) yes
4) typically try to find dissociations (variables that affect one kind of memory but not the other (has been found in amnesia))

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11
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

loss of memory for info before injury

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12
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

loss of memory for new info post injury

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13
Q

Graf, Squire, Mandler (1984)

A

subjects (normal + amnesic) read a list of words–> took a test for word stem
-were told to either finish the stem with a word on the list (cued recall)
-or finish the stem with the first word that comes mind (Stem completion task)
Results:
-Amnesic subjects do terribly on the recall test; normal subjects did ok
-both groups of subjects perform well on the “first word that comes to mind”
-even amnesic subjects tend to give words from the first list
-but they didn’t forget the words
-this is another dissociation

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14
Q

propaganda effect

A

subjects are more likely to rate statements they have read/heard before as being true

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15
Q

classical conditioning (implicit)

A

occurs when the following 2 stimuli are paired

1) neural stimulus
2) conditioning stimulus

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16
Q

Jacob & Dallas (1981) : typical levels of processing experiment

A
  • subjects answered questions about each word, sound, letter, sound, meaning–> should lead to better memory
  • at test they either got a recognition memory test
  • or identified briefly-presented words (“perceptual identification”)
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17
Q

Weldon & Roediger (1987)

A
  • in general, people remember pics better than words
  • but what if you had an implicit task that was better suited to verbal materials
  • word fragment completion test
  • subjects studied pictures and words–> then took a recall test (explicit–>pictures better) or a word fragment completion task (implicit–>words better)
  • another dissociation
  • as a general rule, implicit tasks are sensitive to the exact way a stimulus was presented but explicit memory isnt (as much)
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18
Q

procedural memory

A
  • knowing how

- memory is not in a special store but is part of the proedures (skills) that you learn

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19
Q

declarative memory

A

knowing that

  • requires the hippocampus to be encoded
  • inherently relational
  • relations btwn the parts of a single event (e.g.- the words on a sentence/on list)
  • relations between items + context (e.g.- this word was said 10 min ago by..)
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20
Q

Chun & Jiang (1998): Implicit Contextual Learning

A

-robust memory for visual context exists to guide
spatial attention
-Targets appearing in learned configurations were detected more
quickly
-compares conscious access of memories explanation with relational explanation
-driven by incidentally learned associations between spatial configurations (context) and target locations
-amnesics show impaired relational learning
-hippocampal memory system may be important for explicit and explicit measures of relational memory in humans
implicit tasks are not relational, explicit tasks are relational

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21
Q

models of memory

A
  • not an explanation of a single phenomenon but a theory of all memory that attempts to explain most phenomena at once
  • formal
  • mathematical/computationa
  • # of models rely on associations as the building blocks of memory (2 elements being paired together, or in chains(if you forget one link of the chain, can’t remember the rest of the chain))
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22
Q

How are memory lists structured?

A

Context
| | | |
word 1—word 2—word 3—word 4

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23
Q

SAM: Search of Associative Memory (Shiffrin & Raaijmakers 1992)

A
  • each item=image
  • each image consists of a set of features, including the context, the name +property of the item, associations to other images
  • an item gets from STM–> LTM the more time it takes in STM (ie- the more it is rehearsed)
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24
Q

Remembering in SAM/

A
  • at retrieval, a cue activates the items that are similar to it or associated w it
  • the diff items “fight it out” (compete) + the one with the most activation wins, if its activation reaches a criterion
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25
Q

what is the cause of all forgetting?

A

1) retrieval failure: think about the “bad” condition in encoding specificity experiments; easier as cues get better
2) decay: breaking down, may be due to time/gradual; hard to say its just decay that is causing memory loss
3) interference: proactive (old get in the way of new + retrograde(new gets in the way of old)

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26
Q

1) spacing effect

2) primacy effect

A

1) -given a set # of study trials, memory is better the more spread out they are
- spaced >massed
- SAM: more contextual cues
2) -more things in working memory the better you’re going to put things into LTM

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27
Q

formal models of memory

A
  • help to show that our theories are internally consistent

- help us work out specific details b/c your cpu doesnt understand words like “similar”/”long time”

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28
Q

What are some drawbacks of FMM ?

A
  • can be difficult to understand

- you have to specify details even if you don’t know them

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29
Q

Understanding + remembering discourse & events

A
  • without knowledge on the topic, could be impossible to correctly understand a passage/event
  • people draw inferences in order to understand + remember those inferences

Result: much that we remember was not actually seen/heard– contextual
-constructive processes of memory

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30
Q

constructive processes of memory

A

much that we remember was not actually seen/heard

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31
Q

memory= constructive

A

refers to what you do @ encoding to fill in gaps in a story or event or pic

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32
Q

memory=reconstructive

A

refers to what you do @ retrieval to fill in gaps in your memory

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33
Q

schema

A

a way of representing knowledge

  • consists of “slots” (basic dimensions that describe the thing)
  • consists of “fillers” (features that specify the dimensions of slots)
  • fillers are ordered by typicality or frequency
  • theme: people remember the interpreted content, not exactly what they head or read
  • memory for exact wording of spoken or read material is bad. memory for meaning is good or at least better
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34
Q

script

A

kind of schema describing an event with a regular order

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35
Q

Bower, Black & Turner

A
  • identified scripts
  • tested memories for script based memories found many examples of inverted script actions that were not in the story
  • compared obstacles to irrelevancies
36
Q

Bower Black & Turner Results

A

obstacles remembered 50% of the time

  • irrelevancies remembered 32% of the time
  • people use the script to understand the events + identify interesting events (those that have implications for the script
  • interesting things are remembered more often
37
Q

Brewer& Treyens (1981)

A
  • incidental memory for an office
  • subjects “remembered” typical office items that were not theres
  • salient items were likely to be remembered
38
Q

Do schemas help/hurt memory

A

yes, both.

  • must weigh helpfulness of schemata to recall things that happened against errors they cause
  • schemas helped recall for typewriter, and unexpected events
  • schema hurt in false recall of books
39
Q

Loftus Eyewitness Mem. Paradigm

A
  • view event
  • given misleading info during questioning
  • test memory for original event including post-event suggestion
  • general problem of source memory(how you encountered some piece of info)
40
Q

Source Mem in SAM terms

A

Context (list)
word 1—word 2—word 3—word 4

real life experience
Context (actual experience)
Event 1–Event2–Event3–Event 4

41
Q

What if you introduce an error in retelling

A

context (retelling 1) –>source
event1–event2b–event3–event4

-now you have 2 competing memories

42
Q

Flashbulb Memories (Brown & Kulik (1977))

A
  • memory for the circumstances in which you experienced/heard about a shocking event
  • emotion somehow fixes the circumstances permanently in you memory
43
Q

Meisser & Harsch (1992)

A
  • gave questionnaire after the challenger explosion
  • repeated it 32 months later
  • low accuracy score, although confidence was high (even among some who were clueless)
  • low correlation of confidence + memory–> high confidence does not equal accuracy
44
Q

false/recovered memory

A
  • people claim not to have memory of a childhood event (usually something traumatic)
  • through therapy/some intervention, they then recall event
45
Q

Bruck & Ceci: How do questions affect children’s memories

A

-likely lead to errors

46
Q

Thomas & Loftus (2002)

A

Sesson1: subjects actually did or just imagined actions which were familiar/bizarre
familiar: look through the magnifying glass, roll the dice
Bizarre: kiss the magnifying glass, sit on the dice
Session 2: they imagined actions 0,1,5x

Results:

  • 2 weeks later, subjs were asked whether they had actually performed the action in session 1
  • imagining the actions in session2 increased the false memory of doing the action from 4% –> 24% (familiar) or 14% (bizarre)
  • even bizarre actions generated false memory
  • results were almost identical for actions that were only imagined in session 1
  • imagining actions made people think that they had actually done them
47
Q

Thomas & Loftus (2002) Limitations

A
  • not traumatic or emotional events
  • college student population
  • memory errors are much more common than people realize for important/salient events
48
Q

Smith & Medin (1981)

A

without concepts, mental life would be chaotic

  • if we perceived each entity as unique, we would be overwhelmed by the sheer diversity of what we experience
  • too many words
49
Q

classification (categorization)

A

identifying the kind of object, event, person

-understanding/explaining entities

50
Q

how are concepts represented

A
  • as definitions
  • in terms of necessary
  • jointly sufficient properties
  • categories are well-defined + with equal membership
51
Q

What is the problem with classical view?

A

-we can’t find such definitions for the vast majority of categories
-categories are fuzzy
-some items are not clearly in or out of the category (borderline members)
some items are better category members than others (typical/atypical)

52
Q

prototype

A

the most typical item (in a category)

1) “best example”
2) more complex representation which includes many different features, each of them weighted by importance (similar to schema)

53
Q

What are the determinants of typicality

A

1) Family Resemblance: typical items have more features in common in the category & fewer features from other categories
2) Ideals: typical items fill some ideal or goal that the category serves

54
Q

prototype theory (eleanor Rusch)

A
  • concept is a summary representation of the category–an abstraction from observed category members
  • you categorize an object by deciding which prototype it is closest to
55
Q

schema + prototypes?

A

a schema is a kind of prototype representation (most typical values listed first )

56
Q

exemplar theory

A

there is no summary representation of a category

  • you remember specific exemplars or instances of the category, along with what category they are in
  • categorization is performed by similarity to specific examples
57
Q

Typical Category Learning Experiment

A
  • 2 artificial categories are constructed
  • subjects see one exemplar at a time and have to guess which category it is in
  • they are told the correct answer
  • different kinds of categories are compared to see which ones are harder to learn
  • possible to memorize exemplars
58
Q

Smith & Minda (1998)

A
  • past evidence seems to show that people learn exemplars
  • they found evidence for prototype learning early
  • but evidence for exemplar learning later
  • people may begin by trying to learn prototypes + then learn exemplars (after lots of exposure to them)
  • in real life you might or might not have that much exposure to exemplars
59
Q

Brooks, Norman, Allen (1991)

A
  • residents + practicing physicians
  • rated the typicality of slides of dermatological conditions
  • after a delay, they categorized similar or dissimilar looking slides
  • Are doctors affected by earlier exemplars?

Results:
Experiment 1, residents
-they are 11% more accurate at diagnosing the similar pictures from different ones –> effect is unchanged by a week’s delay
Experiment 2, general practitioners
-similar pictures 18% more accurate than diff ones

Conclusion: shows that very close similarity to a particular exemplar can influence categorization
HOWEVER rather different from experiments in which items are seen over and over again + may be memorized , doctors clearly have general knowledge about these conditions + not just exemplars
-most psychologists would say that prototypes + exemplars are both learned, but exactly how that happens is unclear

60
Q

Medin & Ortony (1989): psychological essentialism

A
  • people have certain beliefs about certain categories
  • there is an “essence” that only category members have
  • -> essence causes many of the other features associated with the category
  • assume essence must be therre even if they have no clue what it is
  • essences are most often attributed to natural kinds (that exist in nature)
  • some categories dont have essences
61
Q

Uses of knowledge in concepts

A

1) helps to identify what the relevant features are for a category
2) helps in learning which features go with which categories

62
Q

What are the kinds of categories

A
  • artifacts (toaster, CD player, chain, artwork)

- nominal kinds (felon, bachelor, triangle, polka dotted things)

63
Q

Keil (1989): transformation experiment

A

1) do bad things to a raccoon–> still a raccoon, doesnt change into a skunk
2) do bad things to a coffee pot–> make it resemble a bird feeder–> has no essence (not true for raccoon)

  • Do illnesses have essences?
  • -> if they have an underlying cause that is common to all cases?–> YES
  • -> if they are just a set of symptoms?–> NO
64
Q

Ahn et al (2006): Are mental illnesses thought to be essential categories

A

-DSM-IV seems to treat them as arbitrary (uses a checklist)

65
Q

Ahn et. Al (2006): Does the illness have an essence?

A

1) shared by all people who have it?
2) is there something that only these people have?
3) Does that thing cause the symptoms?
4) To cure the disease must you get rid of that thing?
5) must anyone with the illness have it 100%?
5) Natural or man-made?

Results:

  • natural kinds get all (+) answers
  • medical disorders are like natural kinds
  • nominal kinds have definitions but no causal reality, are purely culturally constructed
  • mental disorders are in between, not as causal, more culturally constructed than medical disorders
  • expert clinicians essentialized the mental illnesses less than novices did
66
Q

Embodiment

A
  • Most comprehensive view–> concepts are represented in terms of perceptual + motor features
  • -> a challenge to carry this through with abstract concepts like “beauty” or “fraud”
  • conceptual features must be related to perception in order to classify entities
67
Q

ATL (anterior temporal lobe)

A

“hub” that connects features spread throughout the brain

  • if you receive damage near to color-processing areas you might forget the colors of diff kinds of objects
  • if you receive damage to the ATL –> you might lose info about concepts in general (semantic dementia)
68
Q

What are the two major logical thought processes

A

induction & deduction

69
Q

Deduction

A

start from the premises + then draw some conclusions

70
Q

Induction

A
  • arguments are likely but not guaranteed to be valid

- often involve going from a specific premise to a more general premise

71
Q

deductive logic

A
  • a formal way of determining the validity of arguments

- not what “makes sense”

72
Q

What is the issue found with deductive logic

A

logic is a matter of form, yet the content of an argument sways people’s judgments
-people tend to agree with arguments that sound plausible whether or not they are actually valid

73
Q

Wason Card Selection Task

A

-Each card ahas a pic of food on one side, + a color on the other side, cards may follow the rules:
if the food is a veggie, then the color is red
Which cared do you have to turn over to find out whether the rule is true
-if p then q: if veggie then red
-“which ones could possibly disconfirm this rule?”
-if it can only give confirming evidence or is irrelevant there is no reason to turn the card over

74
Q

permission schema

A

in order to do x, you need to be y

75
Q

Category based Induction

A

most common form, individual objects

  • object is in category x–>has properties common in x
  • because bears have an omentum, wolves do too
  • -> bears= premise category
  • -> wolves= conclusion category

2 variables: similarity of bears–> wolves
typicality of bears–> mammals

76
Q

Lord, Lepper, & Ross (1979): capital punishment studies

A
  • biased evaluation of evidence
  • within states (before v. after instituting)
  • subjects read about both kinds of studies, one agreeing & one disagreeing with their position
  • subjects were better able to identify the design flaws in the study whose conclusion they disagreed with
77
Q

Type 1 processing

A
  • explain fast judgments
  • not necessarily logical or even rational
  • content effects in logic problems
  • myside bias
  • salience/availability heuristics
  • -> “lead to attractive errors”
78
Q

Type 2 Processsing

A
  • explain slower judgment, can correct errors made by the fast one
  • actual use of logic
  • consideration of diff perspectives
  • checking actual data rather than just accepting your first reaction
  • helps in avoiding “attractive errors”
79
Q

causal induction

A

LEARNING what causes what based on some evidence

  • reasoning about known causal mechanisms
  • noticing that x and y are correlated
80
Q

Gopnik, Sobel, Shulz & Glymour (2001): Blicket detection

A

Do children use the screening off principal to assigning causalty

  • detector lights up when blicket touches it
  • tested 3-4 yo children
81
Q

category

A

includes all possible examples of a particular concept

82
Q

prototype approach to categorization

A

membership in a category is determined by comparing that object to a prototype that represents the category
-may work better for large categories “birds”

83
Q

exemplar

A

actual members of the category that a person has encountered in the past

84
Q

exemplar approach to categorization

A

determining whether an object is similar to other objects

-may work better for small categories (US Presidents)

85
Q

Collins & Quillian (1969): The structure of semantic memory

A
  • proposed a hierarchical model of our knowledge of the world
  • a network of nodes (concepts) connected by links (relations)
  • using labeled links between nodes
  • information is stored efficiently in this system, retrieved by searching through network
86
Q

Rips, Shoben & Smith (1973)

A

found effects of typicality, not predicted by Collins & Quilian (showed to be inaccurate)

  • a cow is a mammal (fast)
  • a bat is a mammal (slow
  • -> yet both are one link in the network

sometimes 2 links were faster than one

  • “a pig is a mammal” was slower than “ a pig is an animal
  • models that propose that the human mind is perfectly organized and efficient are usually wrong

Intro to Sociology (3 decks)

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