Exam #2 Flashcards
1
Q
Sensation
A
The reception of stimulation from the environment
2
Q
Stimulus
A
Any form of energy that activates a sense receptor (light waves, chemicals, sounds)
3
Q
Perception
A
- physiological process whereby meaning is given to the sensation
- involves memories of past sensory experiences
- the interpretation of a physical sensation
4
Q
Absolute threshold
A
the smallest intensity of a stimulus that can be detected
- we have different thresholds of sounds, same person varies in sensitivity over time
- more sound to detect in noisy environment
- magnitude at which person can detect stimulus 50% of the time
5
Q
Signal Detection Theory
A
present stimulus on only some trials, some they aren’t, 4 categories
6
Q
Signal present, response yes
A
Hit
7
Q
Signal absent, response yes
A
Miss
8
Q
Signal present, response no
A
False alarm
9
Q
Signal absent, response no
A
Correct rejection
10
Q
D’
A
- ratio of hits to false alarms
- higher ratio, more sensitive –> relative sensitivity
11
Q
Conservative response bias
A
detected stimulus only when you are certain that you have (more rejecting and more misses)
12
Q
Liberal response bias
A
you detected stimulus even when you are unsure (more hits and false alarms)
13
Q
Expectations and motivations
A
if you expect and are motivated, you tend to have a more liberal bias
14
Q
Difference threshold
A
- the smaller amount of change in stimulus intensity that can be detected (aka noticeable difference)
- different senses have different noticeable differences
15
Q
Weber’s Law
A
- noticeable difference depends on intensity of the original stimulus
- greater magnitude of original stimulus, greater amount of change needed to be detected (delta I/I = k) where the weight ration is 1/30
16
Q
Sensory adaptation
A
- stimulus is continually presented in an unchanging intensity or a very rapid repetition at a constant intensity
- sensation is reduced until you no longer notice the sensation
17
Q
Why is sensation reduced until you no longer notice the sensation?
A
Sensory receptors get fatigued, sense receptors are designed to notice changes in environment
18
Q
Subliminal Perception
A
when a stimulus is presented too fast to be consciously perceived, yet it might be registered below our awareness (could affect our behavior)
19
Q
Semantic priming (research done by Marcel)
A
you can identify a word more quickly than if it had been preceded by another word
20
Q
Behavior by Barch et al.
A
- presented negative stereotypes about old peeps or neutral words
- people present with stereotypes found to walk quicker to elevator
- no direct impact in advertising
21
Q
Why is there a difference between lab and real world due to semantic priming?
A
- conditions must be just so (no distractions or competing stimuli)
- measurement of effect must be very sensitive
- for these effects to occur, first and second words must be close in time and space
22
Q
Vision stimulus
A
Activates eye, electromagnetic radiation/light (not all is visible)
23
Q
Amplitude of Vision
A
- height
- determines brightness of visual sensation
- low amplitude of dim, higher is brighter
24
Q
Frequency of Vision
A
- wavelength, amount of time between crests of waves
- determines color, different wavelengths = different colors
25
Retina
actual receptor site, translates into neural impulse
26
Rods
- more responsable for vision in darkness
| - responsible for peripheral vision and sides of retina
27
Cones
- fewer cones than rods
- concentrated in fovea (central spot in retina)
- responsible for color and visual acuity in bright light
- less responsive to light and dark, lots of light must hit them before they fire (best in bright light)
28
Brightness
- # of both rods and cones, more rods and cones the brighter light is
- both rods and cones respond to light and dark
29
Night vision
- color is only indistinct forms of black and gray
- activity: focus image away from fovea
- responses to visual stimuli slow down (rods less directly connected to optic nerve)
- -->axons of nerve connect to optic nerve, neural impulses of rods take longer to get to brain, slows down reaction time
30
Blind spot
- we tend to know what should be there
- no receptors (rods or cones)
- entry of optic nerve to retina where light is insensitive
31
Micro-saccades
Tini jumps in eye, in between jumps drifts occur
32
Physiological nystagmus
Tini constant tremor, constant looking at one thing will lead to fading of image
33
Dark adaptation
- rods and cones firing frequently they get tired and lose sensitivity
1) when you go into darkness rods aren't sensitive enough to be in darkness so they stop firing
2) while receptors rest they regain sensitivity by making fresh supply of chemicals (depleted by intense light)
3) improvement in vision is fairly rapid
4) cones become as sensitive as it gets in 5 min
5) rate of improvement continues at a slower pace until rods reach max sensitivity in 30 min (not very noticeable)
34
Light adaptation
1) when exposed to intense light after darkness rods and cones go crazy
2) a lot of them are firing simultaneously
3) when some chemicals are used up sensitive to light is reduced
4) takes only about a min
35
Optic Chiasm
where half of neurons from each eye cross over to opposite hemisphere of brain, from there visual info is in 2 pathways
36
Main pathway for visual pathway
processing color, form, contrast, and motion
| -thalamus first then occipital lobe
37
2nd pathway for visual pathway
perception of motion and coordinating visual input with other sensory info
-midbrain first then thalamus then occipital lobe
38
Ventral stream
further processing info about form and color (what the object is)
39
Dorsal stream
processes motion and depth perception (where the object is)
40
Color perception, Youg-Helmholtz Trichromatic theory
3 kinds of cones where each cone is responsive to only one range of lightwaves (one for red, green, blue wavelengths)
- color perception depends on relative activation of these three cones
- other colors are combos of these cones (variation of cone activation gives variation in colors)
- does not explain after images
41
Color perception, Opponent Process theory
3 opponent systems in visual systems (pairs of color receptors)
- red-green, yellow-blue, black-white
- within each pair some neurons are excited by wavelengths that reduce one color, those same ones are inhibited by the wavelengths that produce the other color
- some are excited by red but inhibited by green and vice versa
- if you stare at red you exhaust the neurons that are excited by red
42
Color blindness
total blindness is rare, partial is more common
- 5-8% men, 0.3-0.7% women
- in some cases person is missing one of three pigments (dichromats)
43
Opponent Process theory and Youg-Helmholtz Trichromatic theory Validity
- both are true at different levels of processing system
- cone-level: trichromatic theory is accurate
- beyond cones: opponent theory is accurate
44
Basic tenant of Gestalt principles of organization
- "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts"
- structuralism: understand basic bits, add them up to create overall sensation but Gesalt disagrees
- perception has meaning only looking at an object as a whole
45
Figure-Ground differentiation rule, Gesalt
-center of attention is figure, the rest is indistinct background
46
Proximity rule, Gesalt
things that are proximal (close together) belong to each other
47
Closure rule, Gesalt
we favor perception of a more enclosed or complete figure (we fill in spaces)
48
Continuity rule, Gesalt
Elements that appear to flow in same direction are perceived as forming a group
49
Similarity rule, Gesalt
We tend to group elements together that are similar to one another
50
How do we classify sets of stimuli into meaningful object categories?
- Also noticing what features are not there
- Not many features are set in concrete (object will be missing feature, feature is not necessary to classify object)
- Can take on a range of values (big leaves vs. needle leaves)
51
Bottom-up theories
-Perception begins with basic stimulation of sense receptors
-Then it moves up to the cortex where abstract categories are found
-Near bottom of visual processing system: cells called feature detectors
-Specialized cortical cells that are sensitive to a narrow range of stimuli
-After leaving receptors, depends on feature detectors, allows us to begin to recognize shape of object
-When in cortex we can bring more info stored to process object
-When we make errors we typically make errors within a group of objects that share common features
E vs F instead of A vs C
52
Top-down theories
- pattern recognition begins at cortical level and works it way down stimulus
- Pattern recognition involves active recognition of stimulus
- Eyes actively move around picture
- Incorporate the fact that previous experience and info influences our perception
53
Top-down theories basic idea
- If hypothesis is confirmed, pattern recognized
- Not confirmed, devise a hypothesis again and retest it
- Allows us to speed up processing
54
Perceptual Set
- See something in a certain way, makes certain expectations that guide our perceptions
- Derive from: experience/knowledge, what people tell us to expect, and context
55
Why is Context important in perceiving speech
- Speech is never clear enough to fully understand
- Helps explain why we have difficulty with a new language
- Also ambiguous figures and subject contours
- In reality, we have to use integrative theories
- Context will help what feature detectors are activated, cortical will activate top down processes
56
Binocular cue, Convergence
- Infer how close something is
| - From other info coming from eye
57
Binocular cue, Binocular disparity - stereopsis
- Visual field of one eye is slightly different than other eye
- Difference between images is binocular disparity
- 2 images are blended, difference contributes to depth
58
Elevation, Monocular cue
Objects that appear higher in visual field are perceived as farther away
59
Relative size, Monocular cue
- 2 similar objects of different sizes: the larger one appears closer to you
- Helps us with judging unfamiliar things
60
Linear perspective, Monocular cue
- Systematically decreasing size of further objects and decreasing the space between them
- Point where lines converge: vanishing point
- To see more depth, look through toilet paper tube
61
Texture gradient, monocular cue
When you are looking at a textured objects, elements become more textured the closer they are
62
Interposition, Monocular cue
- Two objects, one object is partially covered by the other, the fully exposed object is perceived as nearer
- Increases familiarity of object
63
Aerial perspective (haze), monocular cue
An object for which there is a sharp distinct retinal image appears closer than objects that are more blurry and indistinct
Closer an object, clearer it appears to be
64
Shading and lighting, monocular cue
- The surface of an object that is nearest to light is brightest
- As surface recedes from light, it appears less bright and more darkly shadowed
- The dark is farther away
65
Motion Parallax, monocular cue
- Movement of observer relative to other objects
- The apparent velocity of the other objects movement and direction of object in visual field
- Distant objects move more slowly than closer objects
- Objects beyond focal point move in same direction as you, closer than focal point move in opposite direction of you
66
Skin Senses Basics
- Free nerve endings, different receptors for different senses
- Receptors are not evenly distributed across body
67
Touch (pressure of something)
- Sensitivity: some areas require more pressure
- Most sensitive: lips and fingers
- Least: legs and arms
- Men and women show same distribution, in general women have lower absolute threshold
- Test: point localization, located where the pressure is - 2 point discrimination threshold
- More mobile the area is, the lower the 2 point threshold is
- Constant pressure will be adapted to
- Selective attention - don’t need to be constantly reminded we have clothes on
68
Temperature
- Thermal sensitivity is irregularly distributed
- Lips and fingers also most warmth sensitive
- However warm and cold receptor systems are separate
- Anesthesia reduces sensitivity to warmth before sensitivity to cold
- Intense heat seems to be created by both warm and cold receptors
- Brain interprets it as HOT
69
Psychological zero
- narrow range of temps that a response of warm or cold doesn't respond
- Notice pressure of object not temp
- Around 33 degrees C
- Result of relation of skin temp and object temp instead of absolute temp of object
- Skin is 33-35 degrees C
- Something that is warm must be warmer than your skin temp & vice versa
70
Sensory adaptation with Temperature
- We adapt to thermal experiences, but the more extreme temp is the longer it takes for adaptation
- Complete thermal adaptation is only in range of specific temps
71
Pain
- Not limited to skin
- Stimulus: most forms of pain-inducing stimuli are potentially damaging
- Tissue damage is not necessary nor sufficient in order to experience pain
- Receptors : pain receptors are more numerous than other sensations, more widely and evenly distributed
72
2 different neural pathways of pain
- Rapid neural pathway: transmit neural impulse v quickly along A-fibers
- Slow neural pathway: transmit neural impulse v slowly along C-fibers
73
MRI research for acute pain
- Inject participants with chilli pepper solutions first time, second time participant gets used to it
- Sensory → motor response → vocal response → shift in attention → accompanied by emotional change
74
Parts of brain in MRI coincide with pain pathway
- Thalamus (activated in both hemispheres) →
- Somatosensory area (opposite hemisphere, localized, gradually spreads out) →
- Cingulate cortex (receives info from thalamus and somato., wired to limbic system - focusing attention) →
- Cerebellum (coordinated movement)
75
Sternbach - 2 kinds of pain
- First pain - localized, doesn’t hurt too much (sharp pain that goes away)
- Second pain - more diffused pain, longer lasting and duller than first pain
76
Gate control theory and pathway
- specialized interneurons (Gate cells) that modulate the transmission of pain messages
- Gate cells block transmission of pain when they are excited
- These interneurons close gate to brain
- Gate cells in fact are excited by A-fibers
- If there are many impulses on A-fibers, gate closes and relatively little pain
- Can’t locate gate cells
- PAG (peri-aqueductal gray) - descends from midbrain to spinal cord
- Neural firing is triggered by endorphins
- Brain doesn’t want info
- If we lesion PAG, lessen effects of morphine
- Stimulate PAG, reduce perception of pain
- Endorphins stimulate PAG (reduce and eliminate pain, widely distributed in CNS)
- Increase release of endorphins explain placebos and increased pain tolerance of pregnant women
- Smaller skin involved, sooner adaptation occurs
- Why do we feel that paper cut so long - blood flow, provide enough change to preclude complete adaptation
77
Hearing
stimulus: sound wave (vibration of air particle)
78
Frequency of hearing
- determines the perceived pitch of sound
- Measured in hertz
- Higher frequency, higher pitch
- Double frequency, raise the pitch an octave
79
Amplitude of hearing
- loudness
- Measured in decibels
- Lower amplitude sounds softer
- In part, also frequency
- Higher absolute thresholds for high sounds and low frequencies
80
Pinna, outer ear
- part of the ear outside head
| - Collects sound waves and directs them to auditory canal
81
Auditory canal, outer ear
the narrow passageway from the outer ear to the eardrum
82
Tympanic membrane (ear drum), outer ear
- vibrates in response to sound waves
| - sensitive to pressure
83
Ossicles, Middle ear
3 small bones
84
Malleus (hammer), middle ear
- first bone attached to ear drum
| - transmits vibrations to incus
85
Incus (anvil), middle ear
-transmitting vibrations between malleus and stapes
86
Stapes (stirrup), middle ear
- Intensifies sounds signal
- Strikes open window, creates window in cochlea
- transmits vibrations to oval window
87
Oval window, middle ear
-leads from middle ear to inner ear
88
Cochlea, inner ear
-filled with fluid and hollow
89
Eustachian tube, inner ear
- connects to mouth cavity
| - allows pressure to e equalized within and outside eardrum
90
Basilar membrane, inner ear
- within Cochlea
- lined with fine hairs
- as wave move down membrane, hairs are pressed down; translate wave into neural impulse
91
Auditory nerve, inner ear
transfers auditory info from inner ear to brain
92
Loudness of sound wave
greater amplitude of sound wave, more hair cell it stimulates
93
Place theory of pitch
- Reach biggest along membrane and shrink
- The point on membrane where the wave gets biggest is meaningful
- Tell the brain what the frequency is
- best at high frequency sounds
94
Frequency theory (temporal theory) of pitch
- Idea that the hair cells fire in rhythm and that rhythm is synchronized with wave
- Problem: most nerve cells cannot fire more than 1000/sec
- best at low frequency sounds
95
Volley theory of pitch
hair cells take turns firing
96
Auditory localization
- Sound wave closer to one ear or another sounds closer
- Timing (travel farther to one ear than another)
- Sound is in front or behind you?
97
Consciousness definition
- involves a subjective awareness of internal and external stimuli
- Can be thought of as a state or process
98
First level of consciousness: consciousness
- attention is currently focused on
| - Very limited, can only focus on a small amount of info at any given time
99
Second level of consciousness: Preconscious mind
stored in memory you aren’t currently aware of but can be easily called into consciousness
100
Third level of consciousness: Freudian unconscious mind
- contains thoughts and memories that can't be brought to conscious thought at all, potentially accessible but not readily available
- Only with great difficulty
101
Cognitive unconscious mind today
- contains cognitive processes that cannot be in conscious mind - give rise to thoughts, emotions, behavior
- Product of processes can be brought to conscious mind but process can’t
102
Controlled Process
-Controlled - require persons alert awareness, absorb your attention, take a lot of cognitive effort
-Occur relatively slowly, easily interrupted by other tasks, can interfere with other activities, demand lots of concentration
I.e. driving a car for the first time
103
Automatic Process
- little or no awareness, requires minimal attention, relatively effortless
- Occur rapidly, don’t interfere with other activities, relatively difficult to interfere with
- You forget you drove home - automatic pilot
104
How do processes become automatic
- Some processes are that way from the beginning - breathing
- Lots of automatic processes become that way from practice
- Behavior can become over learned (driving)
105
When do processes receive attention?
- For some reason they became effortful
- When they are interrupted
- Explicit question - asked to think of them
106
Circadian rhythm
- wake cycle that has a 25 hour period, 24 light/dark day modifies it
- Very influential in regulation of sleep and other bodily functions
- Variations in BP, hormonal secretion, urine production, bodily temp
- If you get out of cycle, sleep suffers - jet lag
- Generally easy to fly westward then eastward
- ->Lengthens your day, goes with our natural tendency for 25 hr cycle
107
Pre-first stage of sleep: awake
- Brain waves are small and fast (beta waves)
- Pre-sleep
- ->Brain waves slow down and get a little larger (alpha waves)
- ->Breathing and heart rate slow down, body temp drops
- ->Hypnogogic sleep
- ->Begin to lose voluntary control over movement, sensitivity to outside stimuli drop, thoughts become less reality-bound
- ->Leg jerk - myoclonia
108
Stage 1 sleep
Brain waves slow down even more - theta waves, lower amplitude and irregularity
109
Stage 2 sleep
- Brain waves slower, larger waves interrupted by 2 other kinds of BWs
- Spindles (lots of waves in short period of time, more rapid and greater amplitude)
- K complex - when something happens (phone ringing, indigestion), low frequency high amplitude wave
110
Stage 3 sleep
Waves higher amplitude and slow down - delta waves
111
Stage 4 sleep
- Delta waves become more and more prominent
| - We enter stage 4 about 30 min after falling asleep
112
REM sleep - rapid eye movement
- Enter first rem period 90 min after fall asleep
- Brain waves similar to stage 1
- Typical night people experience REM 4 or 5 times
113
REM vs. non-REM: Movement
- REM - skeletal muscles are limp, become immobile
- ->Don’t sleep walk
- ->If there is movement its twitching hands feet face
- non-REM - can move
114
REM vs. non-REM: BP, heart rate, respiration and breathing
- REM - BP and heart rate, respiration and breathing increases and becomes highly variable
- non-Rem - BP heart rate, respiration and breathing pretty low and steady
115
REM vs. non-REM: waking someone up
- REM - hard to wake someone up
- If you do wake them up, very alert v quickly
- Easier to wake someone up in non-REM especially in earlier stages, people are slow and disoriented to totally be in consciousness
- Brain waves in REM are similar to those when awake
116
Dreaming
- Most occur during REM
- Deep sleep and awake brain is why we do dreaming in REM
- Some happens in non-REM, but these are pretty simple and less vivid
117
Cycles in sleeping
- Cycle through stages many times during night
- Time spent in stages changes throughout night (first REM is short, later REMs are longer peaking at 40-60 min in length)
- REM becomes more prominent in 2nd half of night, less stage 3 and 4
118
Patterns of dreaming
“I never dream” ? - highly unlikely
When awakened during REM - everyone reports dream
-Very self centered
-Revolve around things going on in life - day residue
-Some thematic continuity over successive dreams overnight
119
Why don’t we remember dreams?
- State dependent amnesia - when we are in one state of consciousness, less likely to remember what went on in other state
- Best memories of them are when you just wake up from sleep state
- Or dreams are meant to be forgotten - purpose of REm dreaming is to clear out our brain of unnecessary info we have accumulated so we won’t have to deal with it when we are awake
120
What do dreams mean?
Manifest content: actual events that occur in dream
Latent content: Underlying meaning of events
-Really symbols of hidden desires and fear
-Transform content to symbols that are more acceptable
121
Activation synthesis hypothesis
- REM sleep is set of physiological symptoms
- All of these physiological changes result from activities in brain cells in pons
- If we activate these cells in awake animals same physiological stuff
- Pons sends up neural messages to cortex and brain to get things movin
- Synthesis: cortex’s attempt to synthesize these various signals'
122
Why do we sleep?
Restorative:
-However brain is just as active when asleep
-Body is active too
-Restoration occurs when awake
-Sleep does not vary based on daily activity
Evolutionary:
-Sleep evolved to keep people quiet and hidden at night - to keep us away from predators
-But you can be hunted down during the day
123
Sleep deprivation: Abrupt
- Less than 4 hours in a night
- Person is fatigues and irritable
- Cognitive deficits (lapses in attention), slower cognitive speed, poorer cognitive accuracy
- Impaired decision making and problem solving
- Short term physical consequences: hand tremors, hat band ellusion
- Emotional consequences: more depressed, less sociable
- You will fall asleep faster the next night
124
Sleep deprivation: chronic sleep deprivation/sleep debt
- Most people experience sleep debt, we don't get enough sleep our body wants
- Cognitive effects same as abrupt 4 hours in one night
- Impaired immune functioning - more likely to get sick
125
REM Deprivation
- Deprive people 2 hours of REM, effects are similar to what we already talked about
- Subsequent nights: REM rebound
- The next night the person will spend more than normal time in REM
- Gradual cuts down on overall sleep → pack relatively more REM in
- Getting less sleep, cutting down on non-REM sleep
- Abrupt less sleep → REM goes down, but will remerge with more sleep
126
What does REM do?
- Important for learning and memory, specifically memory consolidation
- REM deprivation lets people to worse on complex memory tasks
- ACH - when we REM we see increase in ACh
- ACh plays important role in storing and memory - this increase can help us consolidate our memories
- Stages 3 and 4 are also important for memory consolidation
- We don’t know what mechanisms are underlying these consequences
127
Overall sleep changes over lifespan
- Newborns: 16-18 hours asleep
- Adolescence (13-23): more sleep than prepubescent, more than adult
- Adults: 7-9 hours asleep
- Elderly: sleep changes but not as predictable, some sleep more some sleep less (more variability)
128
Changes in REM
- Fetuses experience REM
- Infants ~ 50% time asleep infant experiences REM b/c of lots of learning
- By 1st birthday we are down to 30% sleep in REM
- Adults: 20-25% in REM, 5 different episodes
129
Sleep walking and talking
- Walking: non-REM sleep, most common among prepubescent children and they tend to outgrow it
- Talking: deep sleep (stage 4), sleep mumbling, may actually respond to questions although it might not be sensible
130
Night terrors
- Nightmares, person will wake up in a panic and screaming, they go back to sleep pretty quickly and usually don't remember it in morning
- Remember an image but no dream
- Stages 3 and 4 of non-REM
- Common and preschoolers who outgrow them
131
Insomnia
- Difficulty going to sleep and staying asleep
- Situational insomnia: having trouble sleeping in reaction to a stressor in life
- Once stressor is over so is the sleep difficulty
- Benign “insomnia”: person complains of poor or lack of sleep but in reality they are sleeping within a normal range of time, most common form of insomnia
- People overestimate the amount of sleep lost
- When people are awake the next day they remember being awake that night
- Arrhythmic Insomnia: sleeping difficulties arising from interruption in circadian rhythm
- Drug-related insomnia: regular use of psychoactive drugs interferes with sleep (alcohol included)
- Reduce the amount of time in REM and deeper sleep, more light sleep
132
Sleep Apnea
- Person stops breathing while they are asleep
- Obstructive apnea: windpipe closes, person cannot breathe, more common than central apnea, 4 of 100 men above 40 yr, 2 of 100 women above 40 yr
- Snore snore snore quiet quiet then loud snorting snore
- Central apnea: brain centers that control respiration (medulla) aren’t functioning properly, forget to send signal to breath
- Quiet quiet breathing that gradually gets louder
- When does obstructive apnea occur: REM (breathing is fast and irregular here), more likely to occur when you are on your back
- Who develops obstructive apnea? - associated with overweight people but thin people can get it, more likely to develop in people who already snore
- Effects of obs. Apnea
- Positive correlation between heart attack and stroke
- Positive correlation to fatal car accidents
- ->Slow cognitive speed, worsened decision making
133
Treatments of sleep apnea
- Lose weight, weight loss can cure individual if they keep it off
- Oral appliances (machine that keeps tongue pressed down, forward) effective for minor apnea
- CPAP - force air through nose, air flows airway open
- Surgery - breaking chin bone, screw in jaw, pulling jaw out
134
Narcolepsy
- Uncontrollable need to sleep for brief periods of time during the day - loss of muscle tone and sometimes hallucinations
- Will fall asleep when talking, standing, moving around
- Usually occurs between 10 and 25
- Fairly rare, 2-10 in every 10,000
- 2-3 hours after normal night sleep, person goes through microsleeps (last 5-15 seconds) ultimately person takes a nap
- Genetic component - relatives with narcolepsy more likely to suffer from it
- EEG studies have been done, narcolepsy people have normal EEGs
- Animal research - dogs that have been breed to have narcolepsy show neurotransmitter abnormalities in the brain that controls REM sleep
135
Cocaine
-Stimulant
-Ingested for thousands of years
-Pure cocaine first extracted in mid 19th century
-“Schedule 2 drug”-high potential for abuse but can be administer by a doctor for medical use
-Local anesthetic for eye, ear, throat, nose surgeries
14% of americans reported using it sometime in their life
2% in the last year
18-25 years old: 4%
3.5% used crack at some point
>1% crack in last year
-Any route of administration can lead to absorption of toxic amounts
-Cardiovascular or cerebrovascular complications
136
2 forms of cocaine
```
-Hydrochloride salt
Powdered form
Nasally, intravenously
-Freebase-crack
Smoked
High is experienced within less than 10 seconds
```
137
Short-term effects of cocaine
- Increased energy
- Decreased appetite
- Mental alertness
- -Sight, sound, touch
- Increases heart rate/blood pressure
- Makes you talkative
- Dilated pupils
- Onset of effects depend on route of administration
- Snorted
- -Relatively slow onset
- -High for 15-30 min
- Smoked
- -Quick onset, more intense
- -Shorter lived high (5-10 min)
138
Long-term effects of cocaine
Addiction
Irritability
Restlessness
Paranoia
139
Methamphetamine
- Stimulant
- A few medical uses
- To treat narcolepsy, ADHD, obesity
- 5% americans tried it at least once (about 12 million people)
- >1% used it in the last year
- Blocks reuptake of dopamine in nucleus accumbens
- Much longer half life than coke
- How long it takes to get 50% of drug removed from body
- -1 hr for coke
- -12 hrs for meth
140
Types of meth
```
-snorted/injected
Intense rush (“flash”) that lasts a few minutes
Extremely pleasureable
-Snorted
Less intense high within 3-5 min
High lasts 8-24 hours
-Orally ingested
Effects begin within 15-20 min
High lasts 8-24 hours
```
141
Short term effects of meth
```
Increased physical activity
Increased wakefulness
Decreased appetite
Increases respiration rate
Produces general sense of wellbeing
```
142
Long term effects of meth
-dependence/addiction
-Addiction psychosis
-Paranoia
-Rage
-Hallucinations-perceiving things that aren't there
-Delusions-false beliefs
homicidal/suicidal thoughts
-Risk for stroke increased
-Weightloss
-Toxic effect on dopamine producing neurons and serotonin
143
MDMA Ecstasy
-Stimulant and hallucinogen
-Schedule 1 drug
-No proven therapeutic value
-7% americans used it at least once (17 mil)
-18-25 year olds-13%
-1% used in last year
-Many users are polydrug users
-99% of users also use alcohol and/or weed
-94% also use amphetamine
-94% use LSD
-85% use tobacco
-61% use coke
-Causes an increase in serotonin release
-Likely related to mood elevating effects of ecstasy
-Inhibits dopamine release
-Increases release of norepinephrine
-Likely cause of increased heart rate/blood pressure
-Interferes with its own metabolism
-Interferes with own breakdown in the body
-Potentially harmful levels can be reached by repeatedly using in short intervals
-Neurotoxin
Damages serotonin producing neurons
Has long term effects on memory
144
types of MDMA
Orally ingested
Onset of effects is within 1 hr
Effects last 3-6
145
Short term effects of MDMA
```
Mental stimulation
Emotional warmth
Empathy toward others
General sense of wellbeing
Decreased anxiety
Enhanced sensory perception
```
146
Post use effects (a week) of MDMA
```
Anxiety
Irritability
Restlessness
Sadness
Sleep disturbance
Lack of appetite
Increase in impulsiveness
Increased aggression
Reduced interest/pleasure in/from sexual activity
```
147
Cannabis
- 44% of americans age 12 or over have tried at least once
- 52% of 18-25 year olds
- 13% in last year
- 32% of 18-25
- THC binds with cannabinoids (neurotransmitters)
- Areas where they are abundant
- Cerebellum
- Effects your motor coordination
- Hippocampus
- Effects short term memory and learning
- Cortex
- Effect on higher cognitive functioning
- Nucleus accumbens
- Reward
- Areas where they are moderately concentrated
- Hypothalamus
- -Effects temperature regulation
- Reproductive function
- Amygdala
- -Fear
- Spinal cord
- -Influence pain perception
- Brain stem
- -Sleep and arousal
- -Temp regulation
- -Motor control
148
Short term effects of cannabis
```
Increases heart rate
20-50 more beats per minute
Blood vessels in eyes expand
Colors and sounds seem more intense
Time appears to pass more slowly
Hunger and thirst increases
Anxiety
Fear
Distrust
Panic
```
149
types/administration of cannabis
Inhaled
Can be brewed as tea
Orally ingested in foods
150
Heroin
- Opiate
- Most abused of all opiates
- Processed from morphine
- 2% of americans have used at least once
- More likely to be male
- Increases release of dopamine
- In nucleus accumbens
- Affects limbic system
- The high involves increased feelings of pleasure
151
types/Administration of heroin
```
Intravenously injected
Greatest intensity
Most rapid onset of euphorium
7-8 seconds after injection
Intramuscularly injected
Onset is slower
(5-8 min)
smoked/sniffed
Onset 10-15 min
```
152
Short term effects of heroin
```
Surge of pleasure
Usually accompanied by warm flushing of skin
Dry mouth
Heavy feeling in the extremities
Nausea/vomiting
Severe itching
After initial rush:
Drowsy for several hours
Mental function is clouded
Heart slows down
Breathing is severely slowed
Sometimes life threatening
```
153
Long term effects of heroin
- Tolerance
- -More and more of drug required to achieve same effects
- Physical addiction/dependence is likely
- Strong symptoms of withdrawal
- Restlessness, muscle and bone pain, diarrhea
- Involuntary leg movements, cold flashes with goose bumps (cold turkey), severe vomiting
- Major symptoms peak between 24-48 hours of last dose
- Subside after a week
- Chronic long term use
- -Insomnia
- -Constipation
- -Long complications
- -Pneumonia
- -Tuberculosis
- -Could result from user’s general poor health or fact that heroin depresses respiration
- Various mental disorders
- -Depression
- -Antisocial personality
- -Reproductive consequences
- -Males-sexual disfunction
- -Females-menstrual cycles become irregular
154
Hypnosis
Controversy:
Some argue it is an altered state of consciousness
Other say it’s a product of everyday cognitive functioning
-A psychological state of altered attention and altered expectations
155
Nature of modern hypnosis
```
Everyday hypnotic state
-Alpha and beta waves
-Similar to brain activity when a person is awake but relaxed
-Very deep hypnotic state
-Theta waves might emerge
Like stage 1
-Not like being put to sleep
```
156
Four steps to being put in hypnotic state
1.Minimizes distractions and makes person comfortable
2.Tells person to concentrate on something specific
Ticking of clock
Imagined scene
3.Tells person what to expect
“Your eyes are getting heavy”
“Arms feel limp”
4.When these effects occur, person being hypnotized interprets them as being caused by hypnotist’s suggestion
Increases person’s expectations that hypnotist can make other things
Increases suggestibility
157
Susceptibility to hypnosis
10% of population doesn't respond
10% are susceptible
80% somewhat susceptible
People who can become deeply absorbed in intense experiences are susceptible
And people with positive expectations of it
158
Explanations of hypnosis
- Altered state of consciousness
- Dissociation of mental processes into two separate streams of consciousness
- One is in communication with hypnotist and external world
- Other one is the “hidden observer”
159
Cognitive behavioral explanation
“Hypnotism as role play”
- Hypnotism is a normal state in which suggestible people act out a role
- Behave in ways they think a hypnotised person would behave
- The more of the powerful social situation the person finds themselves in, allows them to surrender susceptibility to hypnotist and follow suggestions
- Supported by fact that many of effects can be duplicated in non hypnotised participants
