Exam 2 Flashcards
from the Latin word for “head to tail”; an organized pattern of physical growth that proceeds from the upper to the lower part of the body (i.e. during the prenatal period, the head develops more rapidly than the lower part of the body)
cephalocaudal
“near to far”; an organized pattern of physical growth that proceeds from the center of the body outward
proximodistal
the view that perceptual development involves the detection of increasingly fine-grained, invariant features in the environment; infants actively search for stable features of the environment in a constantly changing perceptual world
differentiation theory
specialization of functions in the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex; the different development of the 2 hemispheres and their specialization in cognitive abilities; one hemisphere of the brain becomes dominant over the other for specific functions
lateralization
verbal abilities (i.e. spoken or written language) and positive emotion (i.e. joy)
functions of the left brain hemisphere
spatial abilities (i.e. judging distances, reading maps, and recognizing geometric shapes) and negative emotion (i.e. distress)
functions of the right brain hemisphere
the capacity of various parts of the cerebral cortex to take over functions of damaged regions – declines as hemispheres lateralize; a highly plastic cerebral cortex has a high capacity for learning
brain plasticity
(Piaget) the process of building schemes through direct interaction with the environment; consists of two complementary activities: assimilation and accommodation.
adaptation
In Piaget’s theory, the process of building schemes through direct interaction with the environment; consists of two complementary activities: assimilation and accommodation.
adaptation
the part of adaptation in which the external world is interpreted in terms of current schemes
assimilation
the part of adaptation in which new schemes are created and old ones adjusted to produce a better fit with the environment; we create new schemes or adjust old ones after noticing that our current ways of thinking do not capture the environment completely; in early childhood, reflecting on & revising one’s faulty reasoning in response to one’s physical & social worlds
accommodation
the understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight; infants do not have a grasp on object permanence (i.e. the game of peek-a-boo highly entertains infants because of this)
object permanence
the basic, fundamental unit of cognitive development, and of knowledge; a repeatable pattern; In Piaget’s theory, a specific psychological structure, or organized way of making sense of experience, that changes with age
scheme
increases in ability to represent experience, symbolically are a major difference between sensory-motor & pre-operational intelligence and between toddlerhood & early childhood; key concept in cognition; the ways we represent our understanding & the representations we can understand change as we develop; how a child shows off/expresses their learned schemes in real life
representation
develops from the processes of mutual gaze or mutual regard. gestures, & pointing; connects meaning, constructed from sensory-motor schemes, to linguistic schemes; words or symbols that refer to specific experiences, concepts, or schemes; experience –> scheme + reference = word
reference
an arbitrary representative of something
symbol
the ability to distinguish and produce sounds; auditory input and motor oral output (i.e. phonemes, morphemes, words, semantics, phrases, syntax, sentences, grammar, ASL & other visual/motor languages)
speech
system of arbitrary symbols arranged in an orderly fashion to convey meaning; communication depends on a shared relation between language & meaning, or referent, & a transaction between speaker & listener, or writer & reader; conveys the speaker’s/writer’s meaning, but it also evokes meaning in the listener/reader; meaning (i.e. concept, idea, image) –> utterances (i.e. translations) –> meaning
language
how one changes words and sentences to represent differences in meaning (i.e. they’re, there, their; it’s v.s. its)
grammar
an early vocabulary error in which young children apply a word too broadly to a wider collection of objects and events than is appropriate
overextension
overextension of regular grammatical rules to words that are exceptions
overregularization
physiological response to experience; develop as brain and perceptual capacity develop; categorized as either:
- emotional contagion: a dynamic transaction between child & caregiver
- emotional flooding [overwhelmed]: tired, hungry, or afraid child –> tantrum
- emotional triggers
- emotional experience & emotional expression
- emotional regulation
emotion
the ability to understand another’s emotional state and to feel with that person, or respond emotionally in a similar way; toddlers have the ability to express this
empathy
adaptation to dynamic system in which caregivers:
- respond empathetically,
- guide behavior, and
- help the child understand a situation & learn to express emotion appropriately, and
- support/appreciate progress
emotional self-regulation
strong affectionate tie with another (i.e. familiarity, preference), which leads one to feel pleasure when interacting with those people they care about and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress; consists of…
- biological basis: innate behaviors & responses of both infant & caregiver
- dynamic system: style of attachment is adaptation –> attachment – promoting behaviors of caregivers
- transaction: between infant/toddler & caregivers who have themselves developed styles of attachment
attachment
early-appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity (quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention, and motor activity,) and self-regulation (strategies that modify that reactivity)
temperament
early-appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity (quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention, and motor activity,) and self-regulation (strategies that modify that reactivity); differences in personality; shapes transactions with caregiver, which modify or intensify temperament
temperament
autonomy meaning “separate”; the interests of children in experimenting, doing things on their own, making choices, exploring, and establishing that they are a separate human being from their caregiver; shame comes into play when the child is told not to do something/autonomy is not encouraged, which hinders development
autonomy/shame
the ability to make a choice and accept the consequences; make decisions on what one wants to do; initiative –> pride, consequences –> failure or guilt; is fostered by social play, supported learning/exploring with adults, conscience development (superego)
initiative
In Erikson’s theory, the psychological conflict of early childhood, which is resolved positively through play experiences that foster a healthy sense of initiative
initiative vs guilt
In Erikson’s theory, the psychological conflict of early childhood, which is resolved positively through play experiences that foster a healthy sense of initiative and through development of superego, or conscience, that is not overly strict or guilt-ridden
initiative vs guilt
differentiation is discovering the functions of/your ability to move your different body parts (i.e. baby reaching for something) vs integration which is discovering the use of that body part/coordinating body parts (i.e. baby using its reaching skills + grabbing skills –> reach + grab something)
differentiation vs integration
nerve cells that transmit and store information
neurons
fibers from different cells come close together and never touch, these connections are what pass along neurotransmitters
synapses
“messengers”; chemicals that allow for neurons to send messages to each other
neurotransmitters
neurons that have not been used are returned to a non-active state, to eventually support future development
synaptic pruning
In Piaget’s theory, the second stage of cognitive development, extending from about 2-7 years of age, in which children undergo an extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic activity, although thought is not yet logical
pre-operational stage of cognitive development
- play detaches from the real-life conditions associated with it: in early pretending, toddlers use only realistic objects; after age 2, children play with less realistic toys & are more imaginative with play
- play becomes less self-centered: children move from directing make-believe towards themselves to directing it towards others and objects
- play includes more complex combination of schemes: pretending to drink from cup –> pretending to pour drink + actually drinking the drink
(Note: make-believe play is the rehearsing of schemes)
development of pretend/make-believe play
development of conscience; regulated by external control –> inner standards; children usually have a rigid thinking about morality (no room for gray areas): either good or bad, right or wrong
morality
pointing out the effects of behavior; encourages empathy & sympathy; is not about fear of punishment; guilt as motivator for moral behavior (Note: excessive guilt is not healthy for childhood development, but a reasonable amount of guilt is)
inductive reasoning
the discipline and/or punishment of a child; warmth & reasoning –> positive (+) moral development, frequent, harsh punishment –> negative (-) moral development; positive approaches: time out, withdrawal of privileges, consistency, warmth, explanations
child rearing
- authoritative: high acceptance, involvement; reasonable demands; permits appropriate decision-making & expression
- authoritarian: cold, rejecting; demand obedience; makes decisions for child (think authoritarian: complete ruler)
- permissive: accepting but uninvolved, overindulgent; few demands/expectations; autonomy beyond child’s readiness
- uninvolved: emotionally detached; few demands/expectations; indifference about autonomy
styles of child rearing
the development of gender-related differences in children; use of gender categorizations/categories to organize world (i.e. gender identity, labeling); gender-stereotyped beliefs
gender typing
exposure to androgens (i.e. prenatal influences) vs biological determinism; even biological attributes exist on continum
biological influences on gender typing
parents, teachers, peer
environmental influences on gender typing
- primitive (present at birth & needed for survival): sucking, rooting, blink, swallow, yawn, gag, cough, sneeze, pupil dilation, shiver, moro, grasp
- postural (appear at 2-4 mos.): parachute, head
- loco-motor (2-4 mos.): swimming, stepping, crawling
(Note: most postural & loco-motor reflexes disappear around 6-12 mos.)
motor reflexes
- feeding routines
- dressing routines
- object play
- cause & effect –> every occurrence has a cause
- object permanence
early sensori-motor schemes
using imitation infants are able to explore their social world; serves as a foundation for understanding others’ thoughts and feelings; infants imitate facial expressions of adults, registering the emotion eventually with that facial expression or action
imitation in infancy
toddlers imitate actions of adults and peers (i.e. playing house); imitate purposeful and accidental behavior
imitation in toddlers
actions that help get an infant around its environment (i.e. walking, crawling, running)
gross-motor development
small actions that have to do with smaller movements (i.e. grasping or reaching)
fine-motor development
infant established trust with caregiver/mother through attachment (i.e. feeling comfort and support in caregiver’s embrace); infant establishes mistrust when it cannot find comfort and security in caregiver/mother (i.e. when child is crying, caregiver doesn’t respond/does anything)
trust vs. mistrust
helps infant or child create more schemes; imitating an adult or another person to try to understand what they do
imitation
- nonsocial play: onlooker, solitary play
- parallel play: near others, similar play, doesn’t influence others
- associative play: separate activities, some exchange
- cooperative play: advanced interaction, common goal
patterns of play
the sing-song speech, often accompanied by exaggerated facial expressions, that parents/caregivers use to speak to an infant or young child
parentese
