Exam 2

Question 1

Common ground

Answer 1

mutual knowledge, beliefs, and suppositions shared by two or more people; communal-comprised of insider and outsider information; personally-based on shared experiences and actions

Question 2

Theory of mind

Answer 2

naïve theory of human psychology; to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one’s own

Question 3

Cohesion

Answer 3

grammatical & lexical linking w/in a text or sentence that holds a text together and gives it meaning; connections among connective utterances or sentences using cohesive markers

Question 4

Cohesive ties

Answer 4

logical links that make information clear; logical links to prior info

Question 5

What are the qualitative changes in conversational skills as children develop that were described in the “Discourse development and impairments” lecture?

Answer 5

• Qualitative changes in conversational skills are:
o Stays on topic longer- this development is very gradual
 9 yr olds barely take more turns on topic than 5 yr olds
 Adolescents definitely take more turns on topic
 9 yr olds do much less “recycling” of turns than 5 yr olds
o Makes greater number of relevant and factually related comments
o Shifts gracefully from one topic to another
o Adjusts content & style to listener
• These are gradual changes but fairly well-established by adolescence

Question 6

What are the conversational problems typically experienced by intellectually disabled children? Children with Autism?

Answer 6

o MR & Autism:
 Experience morpho-syntactic & semantic problems, but have additional difficulty in conversation because:
1. Have difficulty taking perspective of the listener
2. Relatively poor at simultaneously processing verbal and nonverbal information needed to understand topic, intentions, turn-taking, etc.
3. Have problems manipulating linguistic structure to accomplish milestones & to infer info;

Question 7

What are the conversational problems typically experienced by children with SLI?

Answer 7

1. Have problems manipulating linguistic structure to accomplish milestones & to infer info;
    Do not tend to have overt conversational problems, but their morpho-syntactic and semantic problems cause them to have difficulty:
2. Introducing new topics/extending old topics
3. Using any other cohesive ties other than pronouns
4. Repairing breakdowns in ways other than phonetic breakdowns
5. Entering multi-party conversations
    No probs w/ structure of narratives
    Probs comprehending/producing complete cohesive, and coherent narratives bc of morpho-syntactic & semantic deficits
    Primary prob: linguistic structure to integrate narrative content

Question 8

describe Grice’s maxims of communication.

Answer 8

1. Quantity- be succinct
2. Quality- be truthful & accurate
3. Relation- be relevant
4. Manner- be clear

Question 9

What are the elements of a story grammar?

Answer 9

setting: place, time, characters; episodes: initiating event, problem, resolution

Question 10

How does a personal narrative differ from a fictional narrative?

Answer 10

• Personal narrative: relates information about past experiences; the speak may also evaluate the events of the narrative to indicate what these events mean to her/him and what the events indicate about the speaker. Frequently have an Introducer or Abstract at the beginning to introduce the story into a conversation; also frequently have an evaluation of the event or incident and a coda- a closing that bridges the story to the current context or conversation
o Parts:
 Introducer and/or Abstract- gets listener’s attn.; abstract provides an overview of event
 Orientation- background/setting info
 Complicating action- gives evaluative or emotional comments about the high point
 Resolution- caps the event and resolves any complications
 Coda- closes the story and bridges the end of the story to the present context
• Fictional narrative: have one or more than one episode;

Question 11

Phrase

Answer 11

hierarchically structured, i.e., a phrase has a head and certain structures are implied to be contained w/in that phrase; head element obligatory
o Noun phrase- headed by noun
 Determiners (this, that), articles, adjectives, prepositional phrases
o Verb phrase- headed by verb; obligatory: arguments and inflection; optional: prep phrase, adverbs, NPs
o Preposition– headed by prepositional phrase; obligates a noun phrase; codes for location, time, recipient, & possession

Question 12

Clause

Answer 12

a syntactic construction containing a subject & a predicate and forming part of a [complex or compound] sentence or constituting a whole simple sentence

Question 13

Verb

Answer 13

can require 1, 2, or 3 arguments
o transitive- transfer actions to object/person; requires agent/objects (2 args); 2-3
o Intransitive- do not transfer action to an object or person (I run; 1 argument)
o Copula- require 2 arguments
 2 nominals (Shawn is a boy)
 Person, object, or event + attribute (Shawn is handsome)

Question 14

Arguments

Answer 14

the number of semantic elements required by that verb

Question 15

Subordinating conjunctions

Answer 15

a type of dependent clause that is embedded in complex sentences; uses a subordinating conjunction to indicate one clause depends on the other; than, rather than, whether

Question 16

Coordinating conjunctions

Answer 16

can be used to combine two independent clauses that have equal emphasis, thus forming a compound sentence; FANBOYS

Question 17

Embedded propositions

Answer 17

o Multiple prepositions can be linked to each other and expressed in one sentence by embedding one basic proposition w/in another; one method is to embed a full proposition in a slot for a verb argument
o Complex sentences can also be formed by linking a full proposition to one of the stated arguments in another sentence; a linking word to clue this embedding is required: who
o Usually dependent clauses

Question 18

Applebee’s stages of narrative development.

Answer 18

• Stage 1- Heap Stories: 2-3 yrs; consist of labels, description of events; contains no themes
• Stage 2- Sequence Stories: 3 yrs; child labels events that involve a key theme, character of setting; no plot, temporal or causal relationships not provided
• Stage 3- Primitive Narratives: 4-4 11/2 yrs; narrative contains core character, object, or event; contains initiating event, action, and consequence of that action; no real ending or resolution
• Stage 4- Chain narratives: 4.5-5 yrs; some cause & effect of temporal relationship; weak plot (lacks characters’ motivations & goals); attributes or characters of plot not provided; ending may not be logical
• Stage 5- True narrative: 5-7 yrs; contains: theme, central character (& motivations), plot; events are logical & temporal; ends w/ a resolution of the problem

Question 19

How does context embedded language intervention differ from context reduced language intervention?

Answer 19

•Context-embedded—learner uses external cues and info such as facial gestures, real objects, and pictorial representations to enable understanding
oContext-embedded language—refers to communication that occurs in a context of shared understanding; language that is supported by contextual clues in the environment such as objects, props, manipulatives, pictures, graphs, charts, etc. to help make meaning from the spoken and written world; also a result of students interacting w/ e/o to get interpersonal clues to further construct meaning; A “here and now” context is necessary for input to be comprehensible
oBICS- Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills; describes social, conversational language used for oral communication; also described as social language; The language necessary for day to day living, including conversations with friends, informal interactions; comprehend social language by:
observing speakers’ non-verbal behavior (gestures, facial expressions and eye actions);
observing others’ reactions;
using voice cues such as phrasing, intonations, and stress;
observing pictures, concrete objects, and other contextual cues which are present; and
asking for statements to be repeated, and/or clarified.

•Context-reduced—learner must rely on linguistic cues and knowledge about language and text to understand meanings
oDecontextualized- few cues, if any, are present to support spoken/written words to help make language comprehensible; abstract and context is usually known only to author, i.e., textbooks, novel, lecture
oCALP- Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency; context-reduced lang of the academic classroom
non-verbal clues are absent;
there is less face-to-face interaction;
academic language is often abstract;
literacy demands are high (narrative and expository text and textbooks are written beyond the language proficiency of the students); and
cultural/linguistic knowledge is often needed to comprehend fully.

Question 20

Cog undemanding/Context embedded

Answer 20

• Exchanges greetings
• Uses lang to request/command
• Carries on conversation
• Follows spoked direction w/ contextual supports
• Describes classroom objects/ persons
• Gives directions to peers

Question 21

Cog undemanding/context reduced

Answer 21

• Relates personal experiences
• Talks about familiar topics w/o contextual support
• Reads notes, signs, directions
• Writes from direction
• Answers questions about stories/text w/ familiar context

Question 22

Cog demanding/context embedded

Answer 22

• Follows directions for academic tasks
• Understands contextualized academic content
• Talk about less familiar topics with contextual support

Question 23

Cog demanding/context-reduced

Answer 23

• Understands lectures on academic content
• Uses language to predict, reason, analyze, synthesize, evaluate
• Tells/writes explanations, persuasion
• Engages in deductive thought experiments

Question 24

What are some techniques used to manipulate language use by a client in a context embedded treatment activity?

Answer 24

•Contextualized— comprehension significantly aided by knowledge of social/extralinguistic cues; aided by availability of immediate repair of miscomprehensions or by availability of clarification requests; there must be a gradual transfer from adult regulation of activities through talk –> child conscious use of self-talk to accomplish tasks–> child internal, automatic use of self-talk to accomplish tasks; approaches attempt to integrate content, form and use
oCorrection model/request—recasting the child’s utterances in a more complete form and asking the child to imitate
oIncomplete model/request—only the target is modeled for imitation
oError repetition/request—repeat the child’s error w/ rising intonation subtly signaling the need to correct
oSelf-correction request—a request for correction in which the SLP does not repeat the error
oContingent query—the SLP simply asks a question hoping to get a correction

Question 25

What are some techniques used in a context reduced activity?

Answer 25

oInteractive scaffolding (refers to supports that clinician has to provide to get the child to perform the targeted behaviors)

Response facilitations—
•Wait/model the response
•Repeat/emphasize
•Cue via physical signals
•Pause before providing answer
•Provide part of answer
•Provide the answer and have the child repeat

Linguistic facilitations—
•Model
•Expand
•Extend
•Recast
•Use vertical structuring (combine 2 of child’s utterances)
•Build up/break down model (model both telegraphic & complete sentences)
•Focused contrast (pair the error & correction)
•Redirect (show student how to ask or tell another person
oCloze, model, recast, drills, expatiations

Regulatory facilitations—
•Maintain awareness/acceptance of the goal
•Highlight the importance of content
•Relate content to past knowledge 
•Comment on student performance
•Inhibit impulsiveness
•Aid selective/sustained attn.
•Help student manage challenge
•Review cumulative performance
•Comment on task similarities

Mediation techniques: talk by the clinician to guide child’s thinking
•Intentionality—making the child aware of the purpose of an activity and aware of intentional behaviors chosen to meet the purpose
•Meaning—giving meaning to content that is of importance, thus also giving the content value
•Transcendence—connecting current activities to past
oComprehension monitoring
oReciprocal

Question 26

Know the treatment hierarchies discussed in class.

Answer 26

Hierarchies—specific sequence addressed & become more complex

1. Label important people, places, & actions
2. State attributes of characters & location based on story & experience (curious, unconscious, brave, hidden, etc.)
3. State how characteristics of characters & location led to actions (curious so walk to flyer, scared to talked); motivations
4. Form inferences about character’s actions (attributes of characters/setting)

Question 27

Know the “Levels of Discourse in Teacher-Student Interaction” on p. 58.

Answer 27

•Blank et al. (1978) & Berlin et al. (1980)
•4 levels of discourse
1.Matching perception—encourage child to focus on immediate environment; language matched to here & now; ex.: “what is this?”, “point to the pencil”, “give me the spoon”
2.Selective analysis of perception—more refined than level 1: child has to focus on some more salient aspect of the environment; ex.: “What color is this pencil?” “What’s happening in this picture?” “what shape is the bowl?”
3.Reordering perception—requires thinking beyond immediate situation; “Show me the ones that are not red” “Tell me what I put in the bowl before I added the eggs” “Show me the part of the egg we do not eat”
4.Reasoning about perception—requires thinking beyond the immediate situation; child must think about what could happen or what might happen; also has to think about cause and effect; “Why is the boy wearing a raincoat?” “Why did you pick that one?” “What will happen to the cookies when I put them in the oven?”
• Discrepancies b/w teacher-child levels might encourage us to modify our language, the contextual cues, or the topics so that students w/ LLD can succeed.

Question 28

Know the “Expectations at Different Grade Levels” on p. 62.

Answer 28

•Expectations at 3 different grade levels

oPreschool
Language related to arriving and going home
Participants in “show and tell”
Sits while being read to and answers story questions
Has many of Berlin and colleagues’ (1980) discourse skills (at least Levels 1 and 2
Has conversational and some school language (early “meta”) ready for school

oPrimary Grade (Grade 1 focus)
Tells/retells stories and events in logical order
Expresses ideas in a variety of complete sentences
Completes homework
Creates rhyming words
Sounds out words when reading
Stays on topic and takes turn in conversation

oSecondary Grade
Completes oral reports
Completes written reports
Follows teacher lectures
Takes notes
Works w/ peers
Participates in class discussions
Manages spoken-written expository text

Question 29

Know the differences between LLD and TD children listed on p. 178.

Answer 29

LLD–
-Personal Narrative (Total num. of words, C-units, and clauses): Fewer; talked less about topics
-Expository Text (Elaboration, dialogue, causal relationships): Gaps in generating complete, elaborated episodes
Gaps in using dialogue w/in stories
Gaps in expressing clearly defined causal relationships
-Narrative Reading (Complexity of sentences and vocabulary): Fewer complex sentences
Fewer sophisticated or abstract vocabulary words

TD
-PN: More; talked more about topic
-Expository text: Gaps not seen with same frequency
-Narrative Reading: Greater number of actions and details in explanations
Greater number of words
More abstract words
More organized explanations
More complex sentences

Question 30

Know the strategies for comprehending literature listed on p. 220.

Answer 30

> Goal Specific Strategies: Use to get/retain meaning of materials facing them; ex: activating prior knowledge, text analysis, self-questioning, visual imagery, paraphrasing, summarizing

> Monitoring and repairing strategies: Use these tools to keep track of what they are reading and to stop and for gaps of breakdowns in comprehension; ex: going back to check out contextual cues, rereading paragraphs or chapters, taking notes, looking up words in the dictionary

> Packaging strategies: Use these higher-level ability to pull information and knowledge together; ex: planning what to do and how to do it, evaluating and revising strategies, switching strategies when needed

Question 31

Know the reciprocal teaching strategies described on p. 245

Answer 31

• Palincsar & Brown (1984)
o Summarizing
o Seeking clarification
o Questioning
oMaking predictions to help students develop improved comprehension and awareness of how to monitor comprehension
•Myers (2006)—adapted techniques & used questions & clarifiers; children learned that reading is more than sounding out words and developed a better awareness of how to comprehend what one reads
•Younger kids- use puppets; princess retells story; quincy questioner asks easy qs; clara clarifier doesn’t always understand everything or asks questions that might not always be found in the story
•Older kids—drop puppet idea; incorporate reciprocal teaching components & modeling of the strategies to improve comprehension of text. Continue to use a TWA approach—think before reading, think while listening, think after listening
•Ogle (1986)—KWL technique: what I know, what I want to know, and what I learned)—might stay in foreground of language intervention activities at school-age levels;

Question 32

Sentence chunking

Answer 32

• The idea of “who did what to whom in a sentence involves understanding the relations among actors, actions & objects
• Extracting the semantic, underlying relations among words in a sentence can be a difficult task for children w/ and w/o LLD
• Graphic organizers can be used before, during, or after reading; they can be used to help a student prepare a summary or a written report
• Helps the student comprehend “who did what to whom” and acquire the metalinguistic ability to talk about the relations
• Also have potential to help students acquire the syntactic proficiency to help students navigate through the complexity of their textbooks

Question 33

Production & comprehension of sentences requires that there be:

Answer 33

1) min of NP & VP
2) any other elements required by the argument structure of the verb
3) the necessary very inflection (tense, mood, SV agreement)