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Linguistics > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Subset

A

A collection of objects that is contained within another set

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2
Q

Infinite sets

A

They contain an infinite number of items

Ex set of real numbers

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3
Q

Can a subset be infinite?

A

Yes example within the set of real numbers, the subset of integers is infinite

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4
Q

Can there be a finite subset of an infinite set?

A

Yes, the numbers 22, 23, 24 of natural number subset are a finite subset

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5
Q

The learning problem

A

Learning infinite sets from finite subsets is impossible without help. And only a certain type of help is actually helpful

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6
Q

Positive evidence

A

Is evidence about which items are present in the infinite set

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7
Q

Problem with positive evidence

A

There is no guarantee that we will get the relevant evidence. It might happen, it might not

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8
Q

Negative evidence

A

Evidence about which items are absent from the infinite set

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9
Q

Benefit of negative evidence

A

You can eliminate potential infinite set from consideration. You can test hypotheses and over time you find the right one

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10
Q

Learning language is…

A

The generalisation from a finite subset to an infinite set

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11
Q

Fact 1 of learning language

A

All human languages can be characterised as an infinite set of sentences

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12
Q

Fact 2 of learning language

A

The input children receive when learning language is finite. This has to be true because humans learn language in a finite amount of time

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13
Q

Language

A

Is an infinite set of sentences

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14
Q

Language input

A

Is a finite set of sentences that is a subset of the infinite set of the language

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15
Q

Fact 3 of learning languages

A

All children succeed at language acquisition, except for atypical circumstances (diseases, disorders, imprisonment etc)

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16
Q

Positive evidence for language acquisition

A

Just another name for input and people to speak to (and around) children

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17
Q

Negative evidence for language acquisition

A

Some sort of response by the parent after a child produces an ungrammatical sentence but crucially not after a grammatical sentence. Forms of explicit disapproval, non sequiturs, repetitions, recasts, questions

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18
Q

Explicit disapproval

A

Parent says no or shakes head

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19
Q

Non sequiturs

A

Parent fails to understand child

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20
Q

Repetitions

A

Parent repeats the child utterance

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21
Q

Recasts

A

Parent corrects the child utterance

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22
Q

Questions

A

Parent asks for more info

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23
Q

What do children do with negative evidence?

A

They ignore or misinterpret it

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24
Q

Fact 4 of learning language

A

Negative evidence would guarantee that the infinite set can be learned

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25
Q

Fact 5 of learning language

A

But children don’t make use of negative evidence

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26
Q

Logical problem of language acquisition

A

Children are able to learn language despite not having evidence to learn it

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27
Q

Conclusions of the 5 facts

A

We have a paradox. Children learn an infinite set from a finite set, but don’t use the one method (negative evidence) that would help help

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28
Q

Platos problem

A

How we humans have so much knowledge when the environment provides is so little evidence to help us build that knowledge

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29
Q

Logical problem of language acquisition/poverty of the stimulus

A

Highlights the fact that the input (the stimulus) is too poor ( impoverished/poverty) to fully specify the knowledge that we learn

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30
Q

Pure nativism

A

Nativism solution says that human biology solves the problem. All knowledge is innate (present at birth) and we simply brim out that knowledge out as we grow. First solution proposed by Plato to platos problem

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31
Q

Pure empiricism

A

Denies that there is a problem. It says that all knowledge comes from experience (or the input). We just have to figure out how that happens. This was most strongly advocated by John lock, an English philosopher

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32
Q

Pure nativism and pure empiricism

A

Are extreme positions. Nobody in modern age of cognitive science believes these are correct. Instead theories in the middle are explored

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33
Q

Modern nativism

A

Substantial knowledge comes from biology but experience/input still plays an important role

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34
Q

Modern empiricism

A

Some knowledge comes from biology bit experience/ input plays the most important role

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35
Q

Noam Chomsky and modern nativism

A

He’s a modern proponent of a nativist approach to language learning.

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36
Q

Modern nativism more

A

Substantial innate knowledge

Input/experience still plays a role, but less than the role it plays in empiricism

In short children come to the problem with a lot of genetic help, and then use experience to hone in on the correct answer

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37
Q

Modern empiricism more

A

Minimal innate knowledge

Input/ experience plays the largest role in learning new

In short children come to the table with the ability from experience and use experience to build up all of the complexity of language

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38
Q

Principles

A

The fact that all languages share certain properties might indicate that those properties are hard wired in some way

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39
Q

Parameter

A

If parameters were built in, then the learning problem would be simpler: children just need to figure out the right values

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40
Q

The ability to learn complex rules

A

Phonology, morphology and syntax all seem to be predicated upon complex rules, suggesting that humans have the ability to learn complex rules

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41
Q

The ability to mean phonemes and morphemes

A

Our memorisation abilities must be powerful enough to learn the phonemes and morphemes of our languages

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42
Q

Set

A

A collection of objects

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43
Q

Formants

A

Highest amplitude peaks in the frequency spectrum created by the human vocal tract

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44
Q

Spectrogram

A

Frequency is in y axis, time is x axis. So each formant shows up as a horizontal bar

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45
Q

All physical properties are continuous

A

Means that any physical property of sounds that are critical for speech could potentially take any value along a continuous scale. Formants could show up anywhere along the y axis

46
Q

Consequence for language acquisition, if the property is continuous

A

Children need to learn exactly which value is the right value for their language (for speech sound)

47
Q

Formant values and phonemes

A

Different phonemes have different formant values

48
Q

Different people use different values for their formants, for the same vowels!

A

Different people produce slightly different formants for their vowels

49
Q

Categorical perception

A

The act of perceiving physical distinct stimuli as identical for a specific purpose

Example colour is a continuum of wavelengths of light

50
Q

What are we doing with formants?

A

Grouping several physically distinct speech sounds into a single category

51
Q

Children have to learn the categories

A

Children need to learn the boundaries between vowels to learn their language. They have to figure out where along the continuum to put a barrier.

52
Q

Is there ever overlap of phonemes?

A

Yes sometimes but this isn’t a problem for us. We can usually tell which word they are pronouncing

53
Q

The phoneme learning problem

A

Formant values like all physical properties are continuous and different individuals create slightly different formant values for the same phoneme. This means children must learn the boundaries between phonemes in the continuum

54
Q

How children seem to learn 4 steps

A
  1. Children appear to be born with the ability to discriminate every sound difference found in human languages. They are universal listeners
  2. Adults speaking the language around them will tend to produce sounds that are in the middle of language categories. Children are able to notice this.
  3. Over time children lose the ability to discriminate speech sounds that aren’t in the language being spoken around them. Only in the category boundaries in their language remains
  4. When this process is finished the children are just like the adults: they can only discriminate between sounds in their language
55
Q

How long is the process of children learning how to discriminate phonemes

A

By 10-12 months, they have learned the speech sounds of their language

56
Q

Language production 6 months

A

6 months: babbling begins. Tends to be repetitive and does not necessarily correspond to language being spoken by adults

57
Q

Language production 6-10 months

A

Over time babbling starts to show variability and slowly takes on more and more characteristics of the language spoken by adults

58
Q

Language production 10-12 months

A

The sounds created during babbling only come from the adult language. This is last babbling stage before true words are spoken (around 12 months)

59
Q

Phonemes nativism v empiricism

A

Both theories can explain the acquisition of phonemes because both theories allow for innate knowledge (ability to be universal listener) and allow for experience to play a role ( loss of universal listening)

60
Q

Domain general knowledge

A

Used by multiple cognitive abilities. If empiricist a require innate knowledge it will be domain general

61
Q

Domain specific knowledge

A

Used by one cognitive ability. Nativists allow for innate domain specific knowledge because they don’t mind multiple types of innate knowledge

62
Q

Timeline of speaking

A

10-15 months first words are produced

Around 18 months word learning accelerates dramatically, this is the vocabulary explosion

Around 3 years complex morphology appears in words

From 18 month to 3.5 years two word utterances. Function words and longer utterances

63
Q

Word segmentation problem

A

There are no obvious breaks in the physical signal that correspond to breaks between words. Children must somehow decide where the breaks between words in the speech stream despite the lack of physical breaks in the stream

64
Q

Do adults have better processing ability?

A

No. You have already learned words so you can use this knowledge to help you segment novel speech streams

65
Q

Transitional probability

A

The probability of transitioning from one specific sound to the letter that comes after it , kids use this to help segment words

66
Q

Transitional probability equation for (s j)

A

of j’s following s’s/# of s’s

67
Q

How do transitional probabilities help?

A

The idea is that sounds appear next to each other inside of a word will be more frequent than sounds that don’t appear next to each other in a word

68
Q

How else might kids segment words? (Still being researched)

A
  1. Kids may use transitional probability between phonemes
  2. Kids may use transitional probabilities between syllables because most low frequency transitions happen across word boundaries
  3. Children may use the fact that words tend to have one primary stress to help identify separations between words
69
Q

Is the ability to track transitional probabilities modern nativism or modern empiricism?

A

Modern empiricism

70
Q

Is knowledge of syllable boundaries modern empiricism or modern nativism?

A

Both

71
Q

Is knowledge that words only have one primary stress modern nativism or modern empiricism ?

A

Both

72
Q

Noun bias

A

The first 50 words of so young children seem to learn tend to be nouns

73
Q

Why are nouns first?

A

This is even true for adults. The actors and objects are much easier to figure out (without language) than the actions themselves

74
Q

Verbs second

A

When vocabulary explosion hits children begin to learn concrete verbs (thugs they can observe, not abstract verbs like think). Nouns help them learn the verbs

75
Q

Abstract words third

A

Abstract nouns and verbs like idea, death, think and die, prepositions and fiction words

76
Q

Word learning: nativism v empiricism

A

Empiricism: the ability to identify actors/objects and the ability to identify objects/actors have been identified

Both: the ability to use syntactic frames to learn abstract words

77
Q

Children and rule learning

A

There are two changes in mental ability. The change from the first part of the u to the minima and then the change to the second part of the U

78
Q

Why the two changes with children and rule learning?

A

No rule just memorisation (all words are exceptions

Rule learned but no exceptions learned

Rule and exceptions learned

79
Q

What happens at minima?

A

Children overgeneralise, they apply the rule to words that don’t use it, it takes them time to learn the exceptions

80
Q

Rule learning nativism v empiricism

A

Modern empiricism: memorising the (past tense) form of verbs, generalising to a rule

Both: the question is whether there are any aspects of the rule learning that require domain specific knowledge

81
Q

Transformation

A

A syntactic rule that takes the output of the phrase structure rule and rearranges (or transforms) that output into a new output

82
Q

Two steps: phrase structure rules followed by transformations

A

1) we apply the normal ps rules 2) we apply a transformation that moves is to a new location in the tree

Ex apply ps rules
John is running
Apply transformation
Is John running?

83
Q

Head movement

A

Transformation that moves the head from one position to another

84
Q

Where does head movement seem to occur?

A

Yes or no questions.

85
Q

Looking at head movement more deeply, what if there is more than one is?

A

Need a theory that does not depend on linear order because some sentences move the first and some move the second “is”

86
Q

Main clause

A

The highest IP, it is the matrix IP and is the primary IP of the sentence. It forms the structure of the sentence

87
Q

Embedded IP

A

Embedded in the matrix of the sentence. It will be lower than the matrix IP. (Embedded clause)

88
Q

Theory for “is” transformation

A

The is that can be moved is always the matrix from the matrix IP, not the embedded IP

89
Q

Structure dependent

A

The transformation is defined in terms of the hierarchical structure of the sentence, so it is a structure dependent rule

90
Q

Learning structure dependence

A

Children need to learn the correct definition of the head movement in order to create English questions

91
Q

How do children figure out the first head movement theory is incorrect?

A

They notice questions are formed by moving is
They think that “move first” is the correct theory because it’s simpler
They notice an example is incompatible and switch to the move matrix hypothesis
They need to hear sentences that break the first theory

92
Q

The learning theory is wrong 3 steps

A

Children notice questions in English are formed by is

Children don’t make the “move first” hypothesis

Children do not seem to ever hear sentences that “move first” is wrong

93
Q

Nativist theory on learning

A

All transformations must be structure dependent

Children notice questions in English are formed by moving is

Because they innately know transformations are all structure dependent, even a sentence is evidence that head movement targets the main clause IS

Therefor as soon as children notice a transformation is necessary they will know the correct definition

94
Q

Transformation learning nativism v empiricism

A

Nativism: it could be domain specific and innate. Only attempt structure dependent rules

Empiricism: hypothesising a rule and testing the rule

95
Q

Stages not ages

A

A variation in stages at which children hit milestones, children go through the same stages in the same order

96
Q

Critical period

A

Where people acquire language. After this is over language acquisition changes. From birth to puberty

97
Q

Second language acquisition evidence

A

Steady decrease in success starting just before puberty closed by no effect of age after age 16

98
Q

Evidence from language deprivation

A

Individuals tragically deprived of language input

99
Q

Pidgeons

A

What happens when large communities of adults who speak different languages are put into close contact

100
Q

Lexifier

A

Te language that contributes most of the vocabulary of the pidgin

101
Q

The grammar of the pidgin

A

A simplified compromise mix of grammatical properties of the contributing languages

102
Q

The pidgin shows variation from..

A

Speaker to speak in terms of both word choice and grammar. Over time it becomes more and more rigid but maintains some amount of individual variation

103
Q

Are there native speakers of Pidgeons?

A

No they are only spoken by adults who speak other languages natively. Pidgeons are learned by adults who are too old to learn a new language natively

104
Q

Are Pidgeons common?

A

Yes

105
Q

Creoles

A

Are what is made when children are exposed to a pidgin during their critical period for language acquisition

106
Q

Properties of Creoles

A

Larger vocab
Regulate rules for morphology phonology and syntax
Very little variation between speakers of the creole
Is the native language of the speakers

107
Q

Creole is a full language, not a sub standard form of English

A

It is a rule based language that is a full language

108
Q

Where do the properties of creole grammar come from?

A

Modern nativism: brought by children. They have substantial knowledge about how language should work. They appear to take a simple and variable pidgin and turn it into a complex full fledged language

109
Q

Why can only children great a creole?

A

Related to the fact that adults can’t learn other native languages. They only have their innate language learning mechanisms for a short period after birth

110
Q

An important double dissociation

A

Williams syndrome and specific language impairment form a double dissociation between intelligence and language ability. Suggest language ability is independent of general intelligence

111
Q

Double dissociation

A

Two abilities can vary independently of each other

112
Q

Williams syndrome

A

Cognitive and visual deficits but no language deficit

Linguistics (2 decks)

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