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Neuroscience > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Diffusion tension imaging (DT-MRI)

A

Maps tracts of axons that connect different parts of the brain by measuring the diffusion of water molecules

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2
Q

Stimuli in environment stimulates?

A

Afferent neurons in PNS system

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3
Q

Receptors transduce environmental info into..

A

CNS code

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4
Q

Code is transported to CNS via information stream..

A
  1. Brainstem
  2. Thalamus
  3. Primary cortex
    - visual information
    - auditory info
    - tactile info
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5
Q

Association cortices

A

Information streams merge and interact with other information streams to enable complex perceptual processing and behavioral responses.
- Posterior Parietal Association Cortex (PPAC)
Behavior: What is object?
- Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DPAC)
Behavior:Where is object?

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6
Q

Hierarchal Organization

A

Complexity increases with each level
Sensation - lowest level; detecting a stimulus
Perception - highest level; understanding the stimulus

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7
Q

Parallel Processing

A

Simultaneous analysis of signals along different pathways

- cereal process, doesn’t happen step by step, happens all at once

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8
Q

Functional Segregation

A

Distinct functional areas within a level

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9
Q

Audiovisual Pathways

A

Network of auditory pathways
- Cochlear Nerve Projects to the
Brainstem: Tectum
Inferior Colliculi: locate sound and space
Thalamus: relay station
Primary auditory cortex (basic properties: pitch, volume)
Secondary (more complex sounds) Auditory Cortex
Network of visual pathways
- Optic Nerve Projects to the
Brainstem
Superior Colliculi: locate image in space
Thalamus
Primary visual cortex (basic properties: contrast, orientation)
Secondary Visual Cortex (more complex images)

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10
Q

Olivary Complex

A

Auditory/Spacial Map

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11
Q

Association Cortex

A
  • Dorsal stream - Posterior Parietal Association Cortex (PPAC) visual info combined w/auditory&tactile info
    Behavior: where is object
  • Ventral stream - Ventral Association Cortex (VAC)Visual information combined with auditory and lexical information in temporal lobe
    Behavior: what is object?
  • Conscious perception - conscious recognition of objects
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12
Q

Sensory Motor Pathways

A

A sensorimotor response follows one basic principle

- motor output is guided by sensory input

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13
Q

Tactile Sensation

A

Network of receptors in skin, muscle and joints project to
Spinal Cord
- Brainstem
- Thalamus: Primary pain and tactile processing
- Primary somatosensory cortex: Homonuclus(body map)
- Secondary somatosensory cortex
- Association cortex: (PPAC)

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14
Q

Posterior Parietal Association Cortex

A 
Receives and integrates information that guides behavior
- Input from
visual
auditory
somatosensory
- Output to
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
secondary and primary motor cortices
frontal eye lid
basal ganglia
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15
Q

The cortex is made out of?

A

Tracts of neurons that form interconnected systems to perform complex behaviors

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16
Q

Overview of fetal development: Macro level

A 
First Trimester (3 months: weeks 0-12)
 “Framing a house”
Second Trimester (3 months: weeks 13-24)
 “hooking up the wiring”
Third Trimester (3 months: weeks 24-36)
 “making sure that it works”
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17
Q

First trimester

A

First 12 weeks following m’s last menstrual cycle

  • Somatic structures
  • Organs
  • Basic brain structure
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18
Q

Fetal development first trimester

A
  • Conception © + 18 days (2-3 weeks) (framing house)
    Development of the nervous system begins
    Nervous system develops from a layer of epidermal cells in the embryo called the Neural plate
    Neural plate folds over on itself to form the neural tube
  • Within the first 30 days (3-4 weeks)
    Neural tube develops 3 interconnected chambers/swellings
    Chambers become ventricles
    Walls of the chambers: walls become forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain.
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19
Q

Proliferation

A

Neural plate folds to form the neural groove which then fuses to form the neural tube

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20
Q

Second trimester

A

Week 12-24 (hooking up wiring)

  • 11 weeks heart beat can be detected
  • 12 weeks: Non-cortically controlled, reflexive motor movement (e.g., withdrawal reflex)
  • 18 weeks: motor neurons connecting muscles to nerves are now developed
  • Myelination of somatic nerves
  • 19 weeks: Behavioral response to light, facial movements/expressions: yawn, suck, swallow, hiccup
  • 20 weeks: brain is 5 cm long, shape of mature brain
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21
Q

Third trimester

A

Week 24-36
- Neural development (making sure it all works together)
dendritic branching
neural proliferation
- 7 mo: Neural development mostly complete
- 8 mo: Myelination of CNS beginning

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22
Q

Neural development & organization: Step by step

A

Development from “inside out”
Steps in development process
1) Mitosis: Cells must reproduce
2) Migration: Cells must move from their original location to the site where they are needed
3) Aggregation: Cells must develop functioning working groups (e.g., dorsal and ventral streams)
4) Formation of axons

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23
Q

Mitosis/Proliferation

A 
Neural tube is foundation of brain
- Walls become the cortex of the brain
- Hollow core becomes the ventricles
Stem cells 
- Walls are formed by stem cells
- Stem cells near the center of the neural tube replicate/proliferate (mitosis) and differentiate into neurons and glial cells
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24
Q

Aggregation

A

Cell bodies that migrate to the same area need a way to bind together and communicate. (prelude forming synapses)
Mechanisms
Cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs) (beacons/homing signals)
- Located on the surface of neurons and other cells
- CAMs recognize other cells and attract one cell to another
- Aid both migration and aggregation
Gap junctions pass cytoplasm between cells (communication between cells)
- Prevalent in brain development
- May play a role in aggregation and other processes

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25
Q

Axon and Circuit formation

A

Axons grow towards a chemical signal (chemoaffinity), but follow a specific pathway to get there, which might or might not be a direct route.

  • Pioneer growth cones follow guidance molecules along the “pathway”
  • Subsequent growth cones follow paths established by the pioneer growth cones
  • Neurons traveling to the same region “travel together,” meaning that they maintain the same (topographic) relationship to their fellow travelers, from their point of origin to the destination.
26
Q

Hormone vs Neurotransmitter

A

Defining feature of H vs. N is how they are released and the typeof that are receptor activated. Both act in brain and body
- Not the substance itself: Some substances can act as both neurotransmitters and neurohormones (e.g., epinepherine, cortisol)

27
Q

Hormone

A
  • Chemical messenger produced by a gland that is carried by the circulatory system to a distant organ
  • Targets gonads, mammary glands, muscle tissue, brain
28
Q

Neurotransmitter

A
  • Produced in a neuron and released into a synapse

- Target: Dendritic receptors

29
Q

Type of Hormones

A 
Steroid Hormones
- Cholesterol is common precursor
- Adrenal Cortex Hormones
Cortisol, Corticosterone
Progesterone
- Gonadal Hormones
Estrogens (estradiol)
Testosterone
30
Q

Behavioral Neuro: Key Players

A
  • Brain(CNS): Hypothalamus, Amygdala, pre-optic regions
  • Body: Gonads, ovaries, testes
  • Behavior(targets): Reproductive system, structures associated with secondary sex characteristics
31
Q

Behavioral Endocrinology

A

Study of the relationship between hormones and the nervous system

32
Q

Behavior is….

A

Related to gender more than sex

33
Q

XX, XY: Differences

A 
Gonads: Ovaries/Testes
Ducts: 
-XX: uterus, vagina, fallopian tubes
-XY: seminal vesicles, vas deferens
External Reproductive Organs
- labia, clitoris
- penis, scrotum
Secondary Sex Characteristics
- breasts, shoulders, hips, body hair
Brain
- size, slight differences in anatomical structures(Hypothalamus), and lateralization
34
Q

How do you make a man?

A
  1. Genes: XY, gene on Y produces Sry protein
  2. (6wks) Primordial Gonads (testes)
    - Sry protein ->Medulla; medulla matures into testes
  3. (12wks) Ducts(sem vesicles, mas deferens)
    - testes secrete testosterone, testosterone causes Wolfian system to develop and testes to descend, also secrete mulliarian inhibiting substance
  4. (8wks)External reproductive organs begin to develop
  5. Puberty
35
Q

Puberty

A

Secondary Sex Characteristics
Caused by a cascade of hormones from the HPA axis
- anterior pituitary:
secretes growth hormone
secretes Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH)
- “male” vs. “female” sex hormones play important roles in the development of both sexes
- balance determines direction of development

36
Q

John Money

A

Thought children were gender neutral at birth, study with twins, both originally male, after accident one became female as a baby

37
Q

Males and females both have?

A

Androgens and estrogens

38
Q

Sex differences

A

Sex hormones released by testes cause sex differentiation of hypothalamus

  • differentiation of the hypothalamus determines gonadotropins cycle for XX( GnRH initiates ovulation and the menstrual cycle) or remain at a steady state for XY (N/A)
  • Human XY: Testes release testosterone which masculinizes the XY hypothalamus
  • Human XX: Lack (or low levels of) testosterone does NOT masculinize the XX hypothalamus
39
Q

Females have?

A

GnRH

40
Q

Sex

A

biological markers of maleness/femaleness

41
Q

Intersex

A

Having biological sex characteristics of both male and female

42
Q

Gender Identity

A

How you see yourself

43
Q

Cisgender

A

Biological sex is consistent with self-image

- brain and body match

44
Q

Transgender

A

Sexual identity that differs from biological sex

- brain doesn’t match body

45
Q

Intersex development

A

Caused by a mis-step in the stages of pre-natal sexual development
- earlier in process, the more profound effect

46
Q

General Sex Development

A
  • XY
  • Gonads
  • Ductwork
  • External Genitals
  • Secondary sex characteristics and brains
47
Q

Mechanisms for Intersex: XY

- Early/Genetic Phase: At the genetic level

A

At 6 wks, if the XY chromosome fails to produce SRY protein
- Ovaries would develop instead of testes
- Genotype XY, but Phenotype XX
ovaries, uterus, vagina, fallopian tubes,
labia, clitoris

48
Q

Mechanisms for Intersex: XY

Ductwork phase 1

A 
If testicles failed to develop = no testosterone or Mullerian inhibiting substance
- No ovaries OR testes
- Genotype XY, Phenotype XX
uterus, vagina, fallopian tubes
labia, clitoris
49
Q

Mechanisms for Intersex: XY

Ductwork Phase 2

A

Absence of or non responsive to testosterone
- Malfunctioning testes: absence of testosterone but presence of Mullerian inhibiting substance
- Genotype XY, Phenotype XX
internal testes, do not descend
vas deferens, and seminal vesicles do not develop
no uterus or fallopian tubes
presence of labia and clitoris

50
Q

Mechanisms for Intersex: XX

Early Development

A 
If XX fetus is exposed to testosterone at 6 weeks
- XX with testes
- Genotype XX, Phenotype XY
testes
seminal vesicles, vas deferens
scrotum, penis
51
Q

Mechanisms for Intersex: XX

Ductwork phase

A

If an XX fetus is exposed to testosterone at 12 weeks
- presence of ovaries
- Wolfian system will develop
- Absence of Mullerian inhibiting substances will lead to development of uterus and fallopian tubes
- Biopotential precursor will develop along male lines
- Genotype XY, ambiguous phenotype
penis, testes, uterus, and fallopian tubes

52
Q

Mullerian inhibiting substance

A

Suppresses development of female ductwork

53
Q

Testosterone

A

Develop male duct work and external sex characteristics

54
Q

Guevedoces

A

5-alpha reductase (5AR) deficiency: enzyme that converts testosterone to DHT in peripheral tissues
Normal Early Development
XY-> SRY-> Testes
- Normal development of ductwork
Normal Wolffian system (seminal vesicle, vas deferens)
- Abnormal development of bipotential precursor
Absence of 5 AR means that penis and scrotum do not develop.
Instead the child is born with slightly ambiguous genitals: labia (with testes inside) and an enlarged clitoris.
- Puberty
At 12, the rise in testicular androgen may cause the phallus, scrotum and body to develop in a male fashion.

55
Q

Wolffian system

A

seminal vesicles, vas deferens

56
Q

Turner syndrome

A

Genetics: XO or X (dysfunctional X)
female ductwork
normal external sex characteristics
Secondary sex characteristics. At puberty, the lack of functioning ovaries disrupt pubertal development
- infertile, but can still carry child with oocyte donation

57
Q

Gender Dysphoria (GD)

A

A marked incongruence between one’s experienced/expressed gender and assigned gender

58
Q

Disorder of Sexual Development (DSD)

A
  • Intersex, Ambiguous genitalia
    Some common types of DSD
  • XX, XY: Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
    A deficiency of an enzyme that converts cholesterol to cortisol. Results in high pre-natal levels of testosterone.
  • XX- ambiguous external genitalia, delayed/failure of puberty
  • XY: Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)
  • XX, XY, X0: Gonadal Dysgenesis
    Regardless of Genotype: Internal ductwork is female, but malformed gonads fail to produce hormone surge at puberty to develop secondary sex characteristics
59
Q

Very early prenatal period looks like a good candidate for a/the critical period for gender identity development

A

With intersex development, the earlier exposure 6 wks vs. 8 wks the more potent effect on gender identity

60
Q

Post natal

A

XX CAH - neonatal treatments of CAH with corticosteroids(which reduces production of androgens)
- Does not decrease “Masculinization” of play behavior associated with CAH

61
Q

Older age

A

Testosterone suppression or gonadectomy in men with prostate cancer produces no change in gender identity

Neuroscience (3 decks)

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