Exam 2 Flashcards
Milestones: 3 months-motor
lift head and turn side to side; follows a moving object or person with eyes; grasps objects when placed in hands; wiggles and kicks with arms and legs; moves whole body
Milestones: 3 months- language
smiles at the sound of your voice; quiets down at the sound of a soothing voice or when held; makes cooing sounds and gurgling sounds; communicates hunger, fear, discomfort; begins to imitate some sounds; turns head toward direction of sound
When does object permanence develop?
Between 4 and 8 months
Milestones: 3 months-social
anticipates being lifted; begins social smiling; reacts to peek a boo games; enjoys playing with other people and may cry when playing stops; becomes more communicative and expressive with face and body; imitates some movements and facial expressions
Milestones: 6 months- motor
Holds head steady when sitting with your help; reaches for and grasps objects; helps hold the bottle during feeding; explores by mouthing and banging objects; moves toys from one hand to another; pulls up to a sitting position; rolls over
Milestones: 6 months- vision
develops full color vision; distance vision matures, ability to track moving objects matures; finds partially hidden objects; struggles to get objects that are out of reach
Milestones: 6 months- language
Babbles, making almost sing-song sounds and consonant chains; laughs and squeals with delight; responds to own name; begins to respond to “no”; distinguishes emotions by tone of voice; responds to sound by making sounds
Milestones: 6 months- social
enjoys social play; responds to other people’s expressions of emotion, imitates other people in play
Milestones: 1 year- motor
drinks from a cup with help; feeds self with finger food and grasps small objects by using thumb and finger; uses first finger to poke or point; puts small blocks in and takes them out of a container; knocks two blocks together; sits well without support; crawls on hands and knees; pulls self to stand or take steps holding onto furniture; stands alone momentarily; walks with one hand held; cooperates with dressing by offering a foot or an arm
Milestones: 1 year- vision
explores objects in many different ways (shaking, banging, throwing, dropping); finds hidden objects easily; looks at correct picture when the image is named
Milestones: 1 year - language
babbles, but it sometimes “sounds like” talking; says first word; understands simple commands; pays increasing attention to speech; responds to simple verbal requests; responds to “no”; uses simple gestures, such as shaking head for “no”; recognizes family members’ names; tries to “talk” with you; raises her arms when want to be picked up
Milestones: 1 year- social
Shy or anxious with strangers; cries when mother or father leaves; enjoys imitating people in play; shows specific preferences for certain people and toys; tests parental responses to actions during feedings; prefers mother and/or regular caregiver over all others; repeats sounds or gestures for attention
Milestones: 2 years- motor
Walks alone; pulls toys behind him/her while walking; carries large toy or several toys while walking; begins to run; stands on tiptoe; kicks a ball; climbs onto and down from furniture unassisted; walks up and down stairs holding on to support; scribbles spontaneously; turns over container to pour out contents; builds towers of four blocks or more; may show hand preference
Milestones: 2 years- vision
sorts shapes; completes puzzles; fits objects together; coordinates body in space
Milestones: 2 years- language
points to object or picture when it’s named; recognizes names of familiar people, objects, and body parts; says several single words (by 15-18 months); uses simple phrases (by 18-24 months); uses 2-4 word sentences; follows simple instructions, repeats words overheard in conversation
Milestones: 2 years- social
Imitates behavior of others, especially adults and older children; recognizes self in the mirror; increasingly aware of self as separate from others; increasingly enthusiastic about company of other children; begins to show independent and defiant behavior
Normal Birth Weight (NBW)
greater than or equal to 2500 grams/5.5 pounds
Low Birth Weight (LBW)
<2500grams/5.5 pounds
Very Low Birth Weight (VLBW)
<1500grams/3.3 pounds
Extremely Low Birth Weight (ELBW)
<1000grams/2.2 pounds
Normal Term
greater than or equal to 37 weeks Gestational Age
Preterm Birth
<37 weeks GA
Very Preterm Birth (VPTB)
<32 weeks GA
Extremely Preterm Birth (EPTB)
<29 weeks GA
Corrected Age =
chronological age in weeks - weeks premature
Prevalence of Prematurity
2005:
LBW and VLBW comprised 8.2% and 1.5% of US live births from estimated total of 4,140,419
0.7% with ELBW and 0.4% for <750 grams
12.7% and 2.0% met criteria for preterm and VPTB
Associated Medical Factors with Prematurity
previous preterm birth; family history of infertility; multiple gestation; placental abnormalities; uterine abnormalities/infections; preeclampsia: when a pregnant woman develops high blood pressure and protein in the urine after the 20th week of pregnancy
Demographic differences of premature birth
- Men have a higher prevalence of neonatal complications and adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes
- VLBW/VPTB is twice as high in non-Hispanic blacks and whites, higher in single mothers, higher in families of low SES
- Differences hypothesized due to: effects of stress on neuron-endocrine system, smoking and drug use, underutilization of prenatal care, susceptibility to genital tract infections, combined effect of low folate intake and G-E interactions
Medical Interventions for Premature Birth
Advances in neonatal intensive care in 1960s resulted in increased survival and reduced morbidity, markedly in VLBW and ELBW cohorts
Medical Interventions: resuscitation, assisted ventilation & high-pressure ventilation, drug treatments, IV nutrition, phototherapy for jaundice, surfactant for immature lungs, antenatal steroids and antibiotics
Environmental Interventions
environmental controls over exposure to light, loud noise, sleep interruptions; positioning and handling procedures; parent education and counseling
Brain growth in the late fetal period
Brain growth is rapid in the late fetal period: increases in total brain volume, proliferation of glial cells, formation of myelin, growth of axial and dendritic spines, synaptogenesis, axonal pruning
Primary processes responsible for brain damage in neonates with VLBW/VPTB: hypoxic ischemia (inadequate flow of blood and oxygen to the brain), associated oxygen and glucose deprivation
Effects of Prematurity on the Brain: Neuropathology
Common brain abnormalities:
- PVL (periventricular leukomalacia)- involves death of small areas of brain tissue (white matter) around ventricles and creates holes in the brain
- Hemorrhagic Infarctions (IVH = intraventricular hemorrhage) Infarctions are tissue areas in the body that have died because they did not receive proper oxygen. In this case, in the brain. This is a major complication of premature birth, and a cause of cerebral palsy and hydrocephalus
- Ventriculomegaly: lateral ventricles are dilated
Structural Abnormalities in School-Age Children and Adults born premature
Thinning of corpus callosum, diffuse reductions in white matter, ventricular dilation, porencephaly (cyst or cavity filled with cerebrospinal fluid develops in the brain), intraparenchymal cysts secondary to IVH and PVL
Neuropsychological Outcomes of Prematurity
Risk of cognitive, learning and behavioral problems, persist into school-age and adulthood, lower BW and preterm birth related to poorer outcomes, lower outcomes also related to neonatal complications; performances on tests of executive functions and perceptual motor abilities more close related to biological risks; environmental/social risk factors better predict verbal ability, IQ and behavioral outcomes
Neuropsychological areas most affected by VLBW/VPTB
executive functioning, perceptual-motor skills, memory
Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development
for ages 1 month to 4 years; cognitive scales, motor scales, and language scales; newer scales which examine social-emotional and adaptive behavior
Alfred Binet
1904: hired by French government to assess the mentally handicapped as the government was legally obliged to educate all children.
1905: Binet made the first measure of intellectual abilities, which included 30 items of increasing difficulty. Challenging items measured abilities in the domains of attention, memory, discrimination, imagination and verbal fluency
Binet’s three criteria for intelligent thought
- La direction (the taking of and maintenance of a given metal set)
- l’adaptation (the adaptation of thought to obtain a given end)
- la critique (the taking of a critical attitude toward one’s thought and the process of correcting it)
Two Factor Theory
Intelligence is composed of the general factor (g) and specific factors (s). g is the general level of mental energy allowing us to think/reason abstractly that doesn’t rely on prior experience/learning
s refers to our crystallized intelligence and concrete knowledge that comes from past experiences/learning
Examples of Psychometric Approach
Includes Stanford-Binet, Wechsler Tests, Standard Scores, z-scores, percentile ranks, the four factor model from the WISC-IV, scatter on verbal tests and non verbal tests
4 things measured by Psychometric Approach
Verbal, nonverbal, working memory, processing speed
Emotional intelligence
self awareness, social awareness, self-management, and relationship management
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
The ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically
Linguistic Intelligence
The master of language. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively manipulate language to remember information and to express oneself
Spatial Intelligence
The ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to solve problems. This intelligence is not limited to visual domains
Musical Intelligence
The ability to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
The ability to use one’s mental abilities to coordinate one’s own bodily movements
Interpersonal Intelligence
The ability to understand and discern the feelings and intentions of others
Intrapersonal Intelligence
the ability to understand one’s own feelings and motivations
Other types of intelligence that are part of Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory
Existential intelligence, spiritual intelligence, naturalist intelligence, and moral intelligence
Environmental Effects on Intelligence
Social variables (cultural differences, personal differences); occupation, schooling, interventions (in school, intelligence test scores), family environment
Biological variables that affect intelligence
nutrition, lead, alcohol (fetal alcohol syndrome), perinatal factors (delivery complications can have an effect but contribute little to the intelligence variance in the population)
The Flynn Effect
Every year, test scores rise. Average gain is about 3 IQ points per decade, so the tests are restandardized to keep up with the gain. Gains in intelligence are not always accompanied by gains in school achievement
Visual Pathways
From the retina, through the optic nerve, crossing over at the optic chiasm, traveling through the optic tract to the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus, Through optic radiations, to the primary visual cortex
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
a relay center in the thalamus for the visual pathway. It receives a major sensory input from the retina. The LGN is the main central connection for the optic nerve to the occipital lobe
Superior Colliculus
the rostral bump on the lateral part of the midbrain, a layered visual structure
Thalamus
relay stations between subcortical areas of the brain and the cortex
V1 enzyme cytochrome oxidase
essential for making energy available to cells
2 main streams of visual processing
Where? and What?
Where? stream
dorsal pathways projecting to parieto-occipital association cortex; analyze motion and spatial relationships between objects and between the body and visual stimuli
What? stream
ventral pathways projecting to occiptotemporal association cortex; analyze form; specific regions for colors, faces, letters, etc.
Facial Perception
Apparent specialization of humans for facia processing, better at deciphering faces of humans than of other animals, importance of the fusiform face area
Facial perception and features of attachment
proximity seeking, gaze, separation and stranger anxiety, exploration
Object Perception
involves the ventral stream but distinct areas have been implicated for object perception; process of recognizing images is pre-organized
Auditory: ventral cochlea
encodes intensity of information
Auditory: dorsal cochlea
encodes information and analyzes quality of sounds
Auditory: Superior olivary nucleus and trapezoid body
modulates localization of sound and the intensity of sounds
Auditory: Inferior colliculus
integrating auditory stimuli and actions
Auditory: medial geniculate nucleus of thalamus
further processing and integration of auditory stimuli
Primary auditory cortex
cortical processing of sounds, noise and auditory information
Temporal Lobe- Auditory
Primary auditory cortex, tonotopic organization- low frequency sounds are processed by neurons in the anterior and high frequency in the posterior. There is NOT a strict contralateral representation of the auditory world in the way that visual and somatosensory cortexes present. MGN has projections both to primary auditory cortex and the auditory association areas
Language areas associated with auditory system
Broca and Wernicke’s area, stimulation outside of speech zones can disrupt speech while stimulation of speech zones affects more than just speech- strict localization not possible
Areas of the brain affected by language processing
occipital, temporal, primary motor&broca, frontal/temporal
Theories of Language development: Nurture
BF Skinner: language is shaped by reinforcement when child imitates speech, correct words are rewarded, trial and error, learning process- such as Mom says “daddy” every time he walks in the room
Theories of Language development: nature
Noam Chomsky: language is innate- etched into the structure of the mind. Language acquisition device- proposed this was a neurological system that contained a set of rules; universal grammar: common to all language; speak in a rule-oriented fashion as soon as enough words are acquired
Theories of Language Development: nature and nurture
Lev Vygotsky: interaction between inner capacity and environmental. Zone of proximal development, social context and social exchange are the sources of language acquisition, language leads to thought
Language as a system
language is not just communication but a structured system that contains a finite set of elements with an infinite set of possibilities; makes language unique to humans
The elements include words, which are composed of phonemes, the sounds of a language. These words are combined in predictable ways to yield a potentially infinite number of sentences
Development of Language Functions
Phonology –> morphology –> grammar & syntax –> semantics –> pragmatics
Development of structural language
phonology (phonological awareness, phonemic segments)
Morphology (the study of the structure and form of words in language including inflection, derivation, and the formation of compounds, prefixes, suffixes, roots)
Syntax (word order, sentence patterns)
Development of Sounds
the ability to segment language into sounds which make up words, conscious focus on the acoustic signal, language play serves as practice and facilitates the acquisition of form
Speech Sound Disorders
disorder in phonological development, incidence 5% of young children, lasts from 2-5 years, deletion of final consonant, changing of first letter (k to t, g to d); most children outgrow or suppress phonologic processes, for those who don’t, association w/ later phonological deficits, specific learning disorder, with impairment in reading. amenable to treatment
Conductive hearing loss
occurs when sound is not conducted properly from the outer ear to the middle ear, results in reduction of sound level, caused by foreign body, cold, ear infection, fluid in middle ear, etc
Sensorineural hearing loss
occurs when there is damage to the inner ear (cochlea) or neural pathways, often irreversible reduction or loss of sound, caused by toxins, agin, head trauma, exposure to loud noises, illness, etc
Mixed hearing loss
combination of conductive and sensorineural hearing loss
Development of Words
segmenting sentences into words, seek word meanings, words are tied to communicative functions, awareness that words represent concepts independent of the functions they serve. Words are symbols
Development of content of functional language system
knowledge of objects, relationship between objects and events, content categories, concept development (temporal, spatial, causal, quantitative)
Development of use of language
communicative intent, conversational rules, turn taking, topic control, cohesion, ordering of ideas, inflection, pronoun reference
Language Pragmatics
- Using language for different purposes such as greetings, informing, demanding, promising, requesting
- changing language according to the needs of a listener or situations, such as talking differently to a baby than to an adult, giving background information to an unfamiliar listener, speaking differently in a classroom than on a playground
- Following rules for conversation and storytelling, such as taking turns in conversation, introducing topics of conversation, staying on topic, rephrasing when misunderstood, how to use verbal and nonverbal signals, how close to stand to someone when speaking, eye contact, facial expressions
Language Deficits
term reserved for the deficiency in a set of language skills that develop with exposure
Language Delays
term reserved for the slowed acquisition in a set of language skills that develop with exposure
Language disorders that impact functioning
aphasias, communication disorders, Specific Learning Disorder with impairment in written expression and/or reading
Aphasias
term reserved for an acquired disorder that disturbs language functions
Broca’s aphasia
nonfluent speech, grammar problems, comprehension good
Wernicke’s aphasia
fluent speech, grammar okay, but meaningless and comprehension poor
Conduction aphasia
arcuate fasciculus affected (impaired repetition and paraphasic errors)
Global aphasia
both speech and comprehension affected
anomia or dysnomia
normal fluency, comprehension, and repetition but naming difficulties
Verbal defects
tend to have more obvious and widespread consequences than defects in other functional systems because task instructions are frequently verbal, self-regulating and self-critiquing mechanisms are verbal, most of the school day is all verbal
communication disorders
most common development disorder in children under the age of 5, 75-80% of all early intervention cases involve speech and language issues. disorders include language disorders, social (pragmatic) communication disorder, speech sound disorder, childhood onset fluency disorder (stuttering), unspecified communication disorder
The role of the cerebellum
coordination of movement and posture, adaption of movement to changing external and internal conditions, has been implicated in attention and decision making, organized ipsilaterally (on the same side)
Role of the basal ganglia
subcortical telencephalic nuclei involved in initiation and control of movement. Consists of the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, associate areas include substantia nigra, subthalamic nucleus and projects from basal ganglia to thalamic nuclei
Motor functions: proprioception
the ability to sense the position and location of body parts and movement in connection with other parts of the body; getting directions from your body about where your body is in space
Motor functions: vestibular system
the sensory system based on the labyrinth of the inner ear that helps maintain posture and equilibrium
Gross motor
Larger muscle functions, develop first
Fine motor
Smaller muscle functions, develop later
The frontal lobe in the motor system
movement and motor aspects of speech, behavioral programming, integration of sensory information, integration of arousal, emotion, motivation and behavior/movement, executive functions. Houses the primary motor cortex
Primary motor cortex
somatotopic organization (body is mapped across motor cortex); adjacent regions on cortex correspond to adjacent areas on the body surface; classically depicted by Motor Homunculus although not as clear-cut and consistent as originally believed, organized contralaterally
supplementary motor area
plans out the steps
Prefrontal cortex in the motor system
neurons in these areas are not modality specific, they can process information of different types; neurons in these areas have rich projections to many other brain areas and receive inputs from many other brain areas; essential not only for organization of behavior in the present but also to behavior in the future.
Orbital prefrontal cortex
executive control of social and emotional behavior, decisions about social interactions, not automatic
Lateral Prefrontal Cortex
executive control of cognition (attention, focus, planning, working memory)
Medial prefrontal cortex
executive control of motor behavior
Cerebral Palsy
non-progressive heterogeneous group of movement, postural, and muscular disorders
Multiple sclerosis
multifocal demyleinating disease- causes the destruction of myelin sheath of nerve fibers - scar-like lesions called sclerotic plaques form in the areas where the demyelination has occurred and block or distort the normal transmission of nerve impulses
Huntington’s disease
affects the striatum/basal ganglia, symtpoms include motor, cognitive, behavioral; diagnosis relies on emergence of choreoform movments, adult onset, progressively disabling, lethal disease, no effective treatment
Parkinson’s Disease
affects the production of motor neurotransmitter (decreased dopamine due to damage to the substantia nigra), symptoms include tremor, rigidity, slowed movement, and instability
