Exam 2 Flashcards
Non verbal communication
includes everything that doesn’t include words - everything that is not the verbal portion of the message.
Elements of Non Verbal Communication
- kinesics
- haptics
- chronemics
- objectics
- proxemics
- paralanguage (vocal/non verbal)
What is always apparent about non verbal communication?
We cannot not communicate. Anything can be seen as communicating. There is always communication in human interaction, even if no words are said.
The meaning behind similar nonverbal messages…
varies with different situations
Some signals tend to be…
believed
The signals are seldom…
isolated. Most are tied to the verbal messages.
We decide what about people based on nonverbal cues?
personal attraction
evaluate power relationships
evaluate responses
Nonverbal messages are effective because
a. physical proximity
b. channel availability
c. regulatory requirements
d. reality testing
e. corrective requirements
physical proximity
personal distance
- self image
- social identity
- attitudes get transferred quicker
- less ambiguity
channel availability
opportunity to use all non verbal channels. Not limited to one channel as is usual in verbal communication. Less ambiguity.
regulatory requirements
it is difficult to start, stop, or interupt
reality testing
we tend to immediately know how others react
corrective requirements
because of the interpersonal interaction, behavior gets modified and corrected quickly. Because of the limits of verbal messages, these do not always get corrected.
Chronemics
also called temporal communication. The way we organize, react, and use time. **Time is objective. Time happens to us. **
Philosophers moved away from the conception of time because if its objective, where is it?
Varieties of Time
- Cultural Time
- Diffused and displaced time orientations
- monochronism and polychronism
- time tracks and the social clock
Cultural time
the way social groups and societies organize time
- technical time: the precise forms of time associated with scientific inquiry
- formal time: the institutionalized division of time into units
- informal time: the loose organization of time associated with phrases like “soon” and “right away”
Diffused and displaced time orientations
- societies with displaced time orientations view time very precisely
- those with diffused time orientations view time approximately
Monochronism and Polychronism
- monochronic individuals and cultures tend to schedule things one at a time
- polychronic individuals and culture engage in multiple activities at the same time
- P & M time is related to different attitudes toward interpersonal relationships.
Time tracks and the social clock
Societies and groups have tacit and explicit schedules for doing a variety of tasks
- these “time tracks” define the rhythm and tempo of life
- have norms of pace and sequence
- often have initiating and terminating rituals
Haptics
refers to touching behavior
- most frequent during greetings and departures, touching can occur in a variety of circumstances, also during conversation.
Have a degree of intimacy most of the time, not hostile
Haptic behavior categories of intimacy
- functional / professional
- social / polite
- friendship / warmth
- love / intimacy
- sexual arousal
boundaries between the categories is fuzzy, even in one culture…things can be misinterpreted.
Kinesics
Eye contact - oculesics
facial expression
posture
gestures
Oculesics
the use of the eyes in a communication setting
- direct eye contact symbolizes listening and attention / unfavorable
- length of eye contact is a cultural variable (aggression for too long or perceived if too short)
Associated with Kinesic movements: raising of eyebrow for example
Facial Expression
combined expressive force of our mobile chin, lip, cheek, eye, and brow muscles…reveals emotions, opinions, and moods.
We can manipulate some expressions, others are unconscious…expressions are universal but can be shaped by culture
Standards of good body action
- appropriateness (movement, dress)
- variety
- physical coordination
- verbal coordination
- dynamic
reinforcing gestures
a. provides emphasis: pounding on table, clutched fist
b. makes a suggestion: shaking finger (emblems)
Descriptive gestures
illustrators - provides visual reference to verbal
objectics
use of objects, props, decoration, clothing, sound, temperature, lighting, etc. to create messages personally, at work, home, etc.
proxemics
the way personal space is structured
- personal space, or distance from other persons is a powerful concept, and research suggests it directly relates to our interpretation of the meaning of messages conveyed by the other person.
Paralanguage
vocalics - voice and articulation
- Rate
- Loudness
- Pitch
- Quality
Perception
sensory and interpretation - decoding a message and assigning meaning
Perception is affect by our…
preparation to perceive or set of expectancies.
We receive what we want to receive, or defend against what we don’t want to receive.
pattern closing tendencies
seeing things as complete even when they aren’t. We complete the pattern (box and triangle exercise)
Hearing
- physical ability
- physical condition: tired, alert
- noise: interference
- relationship of sensation and vocabulary
perceptive listening
- readiness to listen (sense)
- recognition of the problems (attitude, boredom, fatigue)
- awareness of different kinds of listening situations (causal, formal)
- ability to interpret: judge and analyze
Interpersonal communication
any form of communication involving other people; all human communication is interpersonal
intra –> dyad –> group –> organizational –> public –> mass
Dyad
most basic form of group / interpersonal structure
- consists only of 2 people
- co-active
- constantly sending and receiving information
- constantly sharing
- constantly changing
Dyad Rule #1
At any time there are more than 2 people, the structure ceases to be a dyad
Dyad Rule #2
The smallest number of people necessary for a successful INTERPERSONAL communication experience is 2.
Dyad Rule # 3
Any time there is a change in the makeup / membership of a dyad, it constitutes a new dyad.
Groups
Any combination of people;
3 or more
Are interactive; constantly sending and receiving information; constantly sharing; constantly changing
**look up the different image models now!!*
aw yis
Groups share the following features:
- Roles: allocate responsibility for tasks
- Norms: identifies suitable behaviors
- Communication structure: details who talks to whom
- Power structure: who has the most influence
Why do groups form ?
- the similarity - attraction effect: we like people that are similar to us
- the complementarity - of - needs hypothesis: we like people who possess qualities that fulfill our own needs
- The proximity - attraction effect: we like people who are close by
- Exposure: we like people whom we have been exposed to repeatedly
- Reciprocity: we like people who like us
- basking in reflected glory: we seek to associate with successful, prestigious groups
avoid people who possess objectionable characteristics
Reasons we join groups
- Affiliation: groups provide a natural way for people to gather in order to satisfy their social needs.
- goal achievement: problems and tasks that require the utilization of knowledge tend to give groups an advantage over individuals.
- Power: individuals gain power in their relationship with their employers by forming unions.
- Status: we want the status as the person in this type of group
- Self Esteem: group membership may nurture self esteem.
- Security: some individuals need protection from other groups or individuals (safety in numbers)
Group Behavior Characteristics
- Cohesiveness: a measure of the attraction of the group to its members (and the resistance to leaving it), the sense of team spirit, and the willingness of its members to coordinate their efforts.
- Esprit de Corps: a common spirit of comradeship, enthusiasm, and devotion to a cause among the members of a group
- Group think: a phenomenon wherein people seek unanimous agreement in spite of contrary facts point to another conclusion
- Shared ignorance: the transmission and distribution of inaccurate information around a group network, without group correction
- Leadership
Conditions for Group Think
- highly cohesive group
- isolation from alternative sources of information
- leader clearly favors a particular option
Eight Main Symptoms of Group Think
- Illusion of Invulnerability: members ignore obvious danger, take extreme risk, and are overly optimistic
- Collective Rationalization: members discredit and explain away warning contrary to group thinking
- Illusion of Morality: members believe their decisions are morally correct, ignoring the ethical consequences of their decisions.
- Excessive Stereotyping: the group constructs negative stereotypes of rivals outside the group
- Pressure of Conformity: members pressure any in the group who express arguments against the group’s stereotypes, illusions, or commitments, viewing such opposition as disloyalty.
- Self-Censorship: members withhold their dissenting views and counter-arguments
- Illusion of Unanimity: members perceive falsely that everyone agrees with the groups decision; silence is seen as consent.
- Mind-guards: some members appoint themselves to the role of protecting the group from adverse information that might threaten group complacency.
Is there such a thing as a natural born leader?
The skills of leadership can only be learned through experience, and the decision to accept the role is personal.
What is leadership?
A complex process by which a person influences others to accomplish a mission, task, or objective, and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent.
What are some leadership attributes?
Belief, values, ethics, character, knowledge, and skills
Characteristics of Effective Leadership
Credibility Homophily Attraction Membership Groups Power
Homophily
The degree to which individuals in a dyad are congruent or similar in certain attributes, such as demographic variables, beliefs, and values.
Heterophily
The degree to which pairs of individuals are different in certain attributes.
Leadership Theory #1
There are three basic ways to explain how people become leaders.
Trait Theory
Great Events Theory
Transformational Leadership Theory
Trait Theory
Personality traits leader people naturally to leadership roles
Great Events Theory
A crisis or important event cause a person to rise to the occasion, which brings out extraordinary leadership qualities in an ordinary person.
Transformational Leadership Theory
People can choose to become leaders. People can learn leadership skills.
Leadership Theory #2
Leadership Styles
Tough Autocrat
Benevolent Autocrat
Laissez-Faire
Democratic
Managerial Decision Making –> Forward Communication –> performance—> feedback (in a circle)
Tough Autocrat
Little confidence in subordinates; distrusts them- constant oversight; makes most/all decisions and passes them down; makes threats to ensure that orders are obeyed - rigid disciplinarian
Benevolent Autocrat
Superior parent figure - “sugar coated” autocrat; makes all the important decisions; source of all standards; convinces subordinates to go along; rewards as well as punishments may be used to motivate people; loyalty demanded
Laissez-Fair
to let the people do as they choose; leave alone
Democratic
has confidence and trust in most people; communicates and consults widely; will seek the views of his coordinates; retains decision making
Leadership Theory #3
Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X
The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can.
Because of this dislike, most people must be controlled and threatened before they will work hard enough.
The average human prefers to be directed, dislikes responsibility, is unambiguous and desires security above everything.
tough management
Theory Y
The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest.
Man will direct himself if he is committed to the aims of the organization.
If the job is satisfying, then the result will be commitment to the organization.
Leadership Theory #4
Theory Z
Places a large amount of freedom and trust with the workers, and assumes that workers have a strong loyalty and interest in team working and the organization.
Conflict
the interaction of interdependent people who perceive the opposition of goals, aims, and values and who see the other people as possibly interfering with those goals, aims, and values.
Types of Conflict
Substantive, affective, procedural
Substantive Conflict
intellectual opposition to the content of ideas
- can be a result of differences over: procedures, ideas, opinions, reasoning processes.
Affective Conflict
emotional, social, and personal conflict
- can be due to issues of: equity, dissatisfaction of social needs, emotional states, perceptions
All conflict is in part affective.
Procedural Conflict
Process based; no agreement on procedure; escalates into affective conflict
Conflict resolution
the solving of conflict between parties, and the maintaining of the solution
Problem solving
finding a solution to a identifiable problem
decision making
selecting and choosing among known solutions
Positional negotiating
drawing a line in sand; is a discussion among two or more people with the goal of reaching an agreement
mediation - non binding
a voluntary and confidential process in which a neutral third party facilitator helps people discuss difficult issues and negotiate an agreement. Parties create their own solutions and the mediator does not have any decision making power over the outcome.
Arbitration
a process in which a neutral third party after reviewing evidence and listening to arguments from both sides, issues a decision to settle the dispute.
Conflict behavior strategies
Competing Accommodating Avoiding Compromising Collaborating
Decision Making and Problem Solving
- Define the problem
- Look at potential causes for the problem
- Identify alternatives for approaches to resolve the problem
- Select an approach to resolve the problem
- Plan the implementation of the best alternative
- Monitor implementation of the plan
- Verify if the problem has been resolved or not
