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Psychology 340 (Ergonomics) > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

static displays

A

are fixed and do not change (example: road signs)

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2
Q

dynamic displays

A

change over time (example: speedometer)…more complex than simple; have many static features (ex: tick marks and digits on a speedometer)

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3
Q

conspicuity

A

how well the display attract attention

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4
Q

visibility

A

how well the display can be seen

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5
Q

conspicuity and visibility

A

both are important for emergency vehicles

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6
Q

best color for emergency vehicles

A

bright or lime-yellow; humans are sensitive to this color

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7
Q

legibility

A

how easy it is to distinguish individual letters/symbols so that they can be recognized (influenced by size, font, pixel density for pictures, contrast between figures and their background)

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8
Q

legibility distance

A

the distance at which a person can read the display (example: fluorescent street signs are more legible than non-fluorescent street signs of the same color in both day and night)…concerns the way text looks

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9
Q

readability

A

concerns larger groups of characters (ex: words, sentences) in which comprehension of the material is a consideration…concerns content or meaning

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10
Q

intelligibility

A

describes how the message in the display should be unambiguous and include information about consequences if ignored (ex: warning/danger signs)

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11
Q

emphasis

A

should be put on important words (ex: “DANGER” in bold and all capitol letters)

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12
Q

standardized

A

make signs more efficient; used on words symbols, colors, and locations to make signs universal (example: stop sign shape and words “STOP”)

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13
Q

maintainability

A

displays should be constructed of appropriate material for the environment (ex: street signs need to withstand soil, mistreatment, and weather while maintaining conspicuity, legibility, and readability)

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14
Q

alphanumeric displays (static display)

A

any display that uses words, letters, or numbers to convey information…character influences legibility; some fonts will be more legible than others

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15
Q

overall density

A

the number of characters shown over the total area of the display

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16
Q

local density

A

the density in the region immediately surrounding a character

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17
Q

grouping

A

related to the Gestalt organizational principles

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18
Q

layout complexity

A

extent to which the layout is predictable

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19
Q

symbolic displays (static display)

A

used to convey information by using an image; typically objects that can easily be drawn; must be identifiable and understandable

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20
Q

clear figure-ground distinction

A

helps eliminate ambiguity about the important elements of the display

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21
Q

simple and symmetric symbols

A

will enhance readability

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22
Q

closed, solid figures

A

are easier to interpret than more complex, open figures

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23
Q

figure contours

A

should be smooth and continuous, unless discontinuity contributes to the information

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24
Q

alphanumeric displays

A

pro: no new relationships between symbols and concepts need to be learned
con: interpreting the message takes more cognitive resources

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25
Q

symbolic displays

A

pro: people can interpret symbolic signs faster than alphanumeric signs; requires less cognitive resources
con: more susceptible to misinterpretation

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26
Q

coding dimensions

A

arbitrary features can be coded to objects or concepts; can be based on alphanumeric forms, non-alphanumeric forms, colors, sizes, flash rates, etc. (ex: road signs are categorized by colors)

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27
Q

absolute judgement

A

refers to the classification of a stimulus when several options are available (ex: deciding that a signal is “high” when the options are high, medium, or low

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28
Q

relative judgement

A

directly compare one to another

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29
Q

if the stimulus varies on a single dimension…

A

people can discriminate between 5 and 7 stimuli

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30
Q

color coding

A

a method that can be very effective…especially when the color is unique (ex: searching for apples in a basket of oranges vs. searching for tangerines in a basket of oranges)

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31
Q

shape coding

A

a useful method because people can distinguish between a very large number of geometric shapes (ex: road signs)

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32
Q

combination codes

A

used to maximize discrimination ability between displays; using more than one type of coding in a display

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33
Q

what is the best coding to use?

A

it depends on your situation

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34
Q

analog display (dynamic display)

A

have a continuous scale and a pointer

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35
Q

digital display (dynamic display)

A

present information in alphanumeric form

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36
Q

analog displays can be designed in 2 ways

A

1) moving pointer and a fixed scale (ex: speedometer)

2) fixed pointer and a moving scale (ex: compass)

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37
Q

digital displays:

A

only present the current value to the measure (ex: odometer)

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38
Q

display arrangements

A

are important when there are many dials or signal lights (consider perceptibility of information within each individual AND the overall organization)

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39
Q

frequency of use

A

the most frequently used and important displays are close to the line of sight under normal viewing conditions (ex: right in from of the user)

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40
Q

sequence of use

A

the order in which the displays are used

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41
Q

link analysis

A

a technique used to assist in the design of display configurations

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42
Q

link

A

is the connection between a pair of items indicating a certain relation between them

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43
Q

steps to doing a link analysis

A

1) PREPARE a diagram that show interactions between the display components
2) EXAMINE all relations between the displays and link values in terms of frequency of eye movements between displays
3) DEVELOP an initial link diagram in which the displays are rearranged so that the most frequently used displays are located in close proximity in the central visual field
4) REFINE the diagram we created in the first step to make the final layout

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44
Q

motion interpretability

A

how well a display represents the motion of an object (ex: GPS showing your car’s motion along the path)

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45
Q

head-up displays (HDUs)

A

most commonly used in airplanes and video games

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46
Q

Helmet-mounted displays (HMDs)

A

similar to HUDs; provide critical information without requiring the user to move his or her head

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47
Q

3 types of warning signals

A

advisories, cautions, and warnings (alarms can be classified into these categories)

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48
Q

advisories

A

evokes general awareness of a marginal condition

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49
Q

cautions

A

evokes immediate attention and requires a relatively rapid response

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50
Q

warnings

A

evokes immediate attention and requires an immediate response

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51
Q

warning signals and labels

A

display design should maximize the detectability of high-priority alerting signals

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52
Q

auditory displays

A

used to convey simple information (ex: emergency alarms and warning signals)

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53
Q

auditory icons

A

representational, everyday sounds with stereotypical meanings (ex: police car siren–> antivirus warning sound)

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54
Q

earcons

A

brief, recognizable sequence of tones to provide information (ex: receiving a text message)

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55
Q

warning and alarm signals

A

must be detectable within the normal operating environment

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56
Q

three-dimensional displays

A

can be made using auditory localization cues (like surround sound)

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57
Q

dichotic displays

A

are when each ear receives different auditory information (can be achieved with headphones)

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58
Q

speech displays

A

are used to transmit slightly more complicated information

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59
Q

tactile/haptic displays

A

rely on sense of touch; great in situations where visual or auditory information channels may be overloaded

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60
Q

tactile displays

A

refer to any displays where information is conveyed by sense of touch (useful in dark environments and for people with visual impairments)

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61
Q

haptic displays

A

usually refer to displays that apply force, vibration, or motion to the user (can be used for alerting signals; ex: a car seat that vibrates in direction of a crash threat)

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62
Q

double-barreled question

A

split questions into more than one part, idea or meaning; two questions in one (ex: “How useful do you find SurveyMonkey’s Help Center Topics and the email support center?”)

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63
Q

when writing questions for surveys:

A

be brief: keep questions short and ask one question at a time; avoid using double-barreled questions

be objective: pay attention to the neutrality of the words; avoid leading questions

be simple: sue language that is simple in both words and phrases; simple, direct and familiar to all respondents; avoid using complex words, technical terms, jargon, and phrases that are difficult to understand; needs to have good readability

be specific: ask precise questions; avoid things that are too general or undefined

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64
Q

social desirability bias

A

respondents tend to give answers they believe will make them look better in the eye of others or not disappoint the evaluator

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65
Q

question types

A

range from open-ended to closed-ended, combining

66
Q

open-ended

A

comments to essays; sometimes called “free response” or “nonstructured” because they allow the respondents to answer in their own words; good for memory recall, opinions, or additional comments that weren’t addressed in other questions

67
Q

closed-ended

A

yes/no, multiple choice, rating scale; questions with pre-designed answers with a small or large set of potential choices

68
Q

drawbacks to open-ended questions

A

sometimes respondents may find it difficult to express their feelings; don’t take the time or effort (have a larger skip rate); analyzing can be time consuming and difficult

69
Q

types of closed-ended questions:

A

dichotomous and multichotomous, single response (choose one) or multiple response (choose all that apply)

70
Q

dichotomous

A

(two category) respondent can choose one of the only two fixed answer choices

71
Q

multichotomous

A

(multiple-category) respondent can choose one of many fixed answer choices

72
Q

combined closed and open

A

multiple choice with “other” answer that asks respondent to explain further if they choose that option

73
Q

likert-type scale

A

scale in which respondents rate their level of agreement or satisfaction; usually a 5-point or 7-point scale…fewer may make data analysis more challenging

74
Q

semantic differential scales

A

involves presenting pairs of bipolar, or opposite, adjectives at either end of a series of scales (ex: weak……strong)

75
Q

continuous response types

A

generally give you better data; easy to implement on computerized surveys

76
Q

prototype

A

a limited representation of a design that allows users to interact with it and to explore its suitability; an envisioned product like a scale model of a building or bridge, video simulation of a task, paper-based outline of a screen, etc.; helps to gain experience of using it in a realistic setting

77
Q

low fidelity prototyping

A

one that does not look very much like the final product; useful because they tend to be simple, cheap and quick to produce

78
Q

storyboarding

A

consists of a series of sketches or screenshots showing how a user might progress through a task using the product under development

79
Q

high fidelity prototyping

A

looks a lot more like the finished product; useful for selling ideas to people and for testing out technical issues

80
Q

horizontal prototyping

A

providing a wide range of functions but with little detail (ex: breadth)

81
Q

vertical prototyping

A

providing a lot of detail for only a few functions (ex: depth)

82
Q

user manuals

A

first impressions, instructions, designing individual pages

83
Q

task analysis techniques:

A

used to understand and represent human and system performance in a particular task or scenario

84
Q

hierarchical task analysis (HTA)

A

involves breaking down the task under analysis into a hierarchy of goals, operations and plans

85
Q

HTA goals:

A

the UNOBSERVABLE task goals associated with the task in question

86
Q

HTA operations:

A

the OBSERVABLE behaviors or activities that the operator has to perform in order to accomplish the goal of the task in question (all observable steps)

87
Q

HTA plans:

A

the UNOBSERVABLE decisions and planning made on behalf of the operator (critical during a lot of tasks)

88
Q

HTA steps

A

1) determine the overall goal of the task: should be specified at the top of the hierarchy
2) determine task sub-goals: break the overall goal down into four or five meaningful sub-goals
3) sub-goal decomposition: sub-goals from step 2 should be broken down into further sub-goals and operations, according to the task
4) plans analysis: once all of the sub-goals have been fully described, the plans need to be added

89
Q

cognitive task analysis (CTA)

A

breaks down the components of the task in terms of the cognitive ability required during each step; the bulk of the data collection occurs via in-depth interviews with subject matter experts

90
Q

workload

A

refers to the total amount of work or effort that a person, or group of people, is to perform within a time limit

91
Q

mental workload

A

the amount of mental effort necessary to perform a task within a time limit

92
Q

empirical techniques

A

used to measure and assess workload directly in a system or simulated system

93
Q

analytical techniques

A

used to predict workload demands early in the system development process

94
Q

four major types of empirical techniques

A

primary task, secondary task, physiological (or psychophysiological), and subjective

95
Q

primary task measures

A

evaluate the mental workload requirements of a task by directly examining performance of the user or of the overall system

96
Q

secondary task measures

A

dual-task performance where the user is required to perform a secondary task in addition to a primary task; workload can be assessed by manipulating the primary or secondary task difficulty and observing changes in performance of the other task

97
Q

loading task paradigm

A

requires users to maintain performance on the secondary task even if performance on the primary task suffers

98
Q

subsidiary task paradigm

A

requires users to maintain performance on the primary task at the expense of the secondary task

99
Q

commonly used secondary tasks are:

A

reaction time, choice reaction time, monitoring for the occurrence of a stimulus, and mental arithmetic

100
Q

psychophysiological measures

A

can use instead of using behavior observations; it can provide online measurement of the dynamic changed in workload as an operator is engaged in the task, without requiring a second task; can be used to measure arousal in users

101
Q

pupillometry

A

a technique to measure arousal by measuring the pupil diameter

102
Q

heart rate

A

generally, increased heart rate=increased mental workload

103
Q

subjective assessment techniques

A

evaluate workload by obtaining users’ judgements about their tasks (typically ask users to rate overall mental workload or several components of workload

104
Q

four most common subjective workload measures

A

1) cooper-harper scale
2) subjective workload assessment technique (SWAT)
3) NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX)
4) workload profile (WP)

105
Q

cooper-harper scale

A

used research on piloting aircraft to develop this mental workload measure

106
Q

subjective workload assessment technique (SWAT)

A

initially designed for use with a variety of systems and tasks; requires users to judge which tasks have higher workload than others using a card-sorting procedure

107
Q

SWAT workload is divided into 3 subcategories:

A

1) time load: the extent to which tasks must be performed within a limited amount of time
2) mental effort load: inherent attentional demands of a task
3) stress load: user variables that contribute to anxiety level

108
Q

NASA task load index (NASA-LTX)

A

most widely used; an overall measure of workload can be obtained by calculating a weighting mean

109
Q

NASA-LTX’s 6 scales for users to rate workload:

A

1) mental demand
2) physical demand
3) temporal demand
4) performance
5) effort
6) frustration level

110
Q

workload profile (WP)

A

uses dimensions based on Wickens’ multiple-resource model: processing stage (perceptual/central or response selection/execution), processing code (spatial or verbal), input modality (visual or auditory), output modality (manual output or speech)

111
Q

two main issues with subjective measurements and their interpretation

A

1) the workload ratings obtained are sensitive only to the range of conditions to which the users are exposed
2) subjective estimates of workload can be different from psychophysiological or performance measures

112
Q

analytical techniques

A

do not require a user to interact with a system or simulator of an established system (pp ch. 10 slide 30)

113
Q

comparison technique

A

uses workload data from a predecessor system to estimate the workload for a system under development

114
Q

expert opinion

A

is one of the easiest and most extensively employed analytic techniques

115
Q

mathematical models

A

1960s and 70s models; replaced by computerized task analysis and simulations

116
Q

task analysis

A

decomposes the overall system goal into segments and user tasks, and ultimately into elemental task requirements

117
Q

simulation model

A

is conducted with a computerized version of reality

118
Q

Stevens’ Law

A

the relationship between physical intensity and psychological magnitude (perceived magnitude)

119
Q

attention

A

our ability to attend to stimuli is limited…how we direct attention will determine how well we perceive, remember, and act on information

120
Q

selective attention

A

determines our ability to focus on certain sources of information and ignore others…a component of many tasks (ex: when reading a book, you ignore sounds from your environment)

121
Q

divided attention

A

determines our ability to do more than one thing at once (ex:drive while talking)

122
Q

mental effort

A

selective and divided attention vary by the amount of mental effort they require…cognitive demands of a user’s duties

123
Q

“attention demanding”

A

if the task requires considerable mental effort

124
Q

executive control

A

performance depends on the type of consecutive control…strategies a person adopts to control the flow of information and task performance

125
Q

models of attention

A

many models…each has contributed a different aspect to our understanding of “attention”

126
Q

bottleneck models

A

specify a particular stage in the information processing sequence where the amount of information we can attend to is limited

127
Q

early selection

A

closer to perception

128
Q

late selection

A

closer to response

129
Q

early selection and late selection

A

refer to where the bottleneck is placed in the information processing sequence

130
Q

resource models

A

view attention as a limited-capacity resource that can be allocated to one or more tasks, rather than as a fixed bottleneck

131
Q

single resource

A

is just one

132
Q

multiple resource

A

is two or more

133
Q

executive control models

A

models that do not hypothesize any capacity limitations

134
Q

filter theory

A

early selection model in which stimuli enter a central processing channel one at a time to be identified..supported by research of “selective attention” (ex: cocktail party phenomenon)

135
Q

filter-attenuation model

A

claims an early filter serves only to attenuate the signal of an unattended message rather than to block it entirely

136
Q

late-selection model

A

describes how all information comes into the processing sequence but if they are not important, they decay rapidly

137
Q

load theory

A

a hybrid early and late-selection theory…whether selection is early or late will depend on whether the perceptual load is high or low

138
Q

resource models

A

postulate that attentional limitations arise because a limited capacity of resources are available for mental activity

139
Q

unitary-resource models

A

hypothesize attention is a limited-capacity resource that can be applied to a variety of processes and tasks

140
Q

dual-task procedures

A

measures the performance when attempting to do a primary and secondary task simultaneously

141
Q

malleable attentional resources

A

performance suffers when there is mental overload and the task is too easy (ex: when tasks are automized, we pay less attention to them)

142
Q

multiple-resource theory

A

states that instead of one resource of attention, there are several distinct cognitive subsystems and each have their own limited pool of resources

143
Q

Executive-Process Interactive Control (EPIC)

A

the theory states that decrements in multiple-task performance are due to the strategies that people adopt to perform different tasks in different manners

144
Q

selective listening

A

used to present a target message with a distractor message to determine what characteristics of the distractor interfere with the target message by masking the target or confusing the listener

145
Q

covert orienting

A

suggests that an observer should be able to selectively attend to a location in the visual field that is different from his/her fixation point

146
Q

endogenous orienting

A

when you shift your attention voluntarily

147
Q

exogenous orienting

A

an involuntary shift of attention (this can happen even when the observer does not move his/her eyes)

148
Q

inhibition of return

A

once attention has shifted away from an exogenously cued location there is a tendency to avoid returning it to that same location

149
Q

divided attention

A

tasks require a person to attend to several sources of information simultaneously

150
Q

prioritizing

A

can help a user divide his/her attention between sources

151
Q

Performance-operating characteristic (POC)

A

sometimes called an attentional operating characteristic…baseline performance for each task when performed by itself is compared to when the tasks are combined

152
Q

independence point

A

this is a hypothetical point where the two tasks can be performed together as efficiently as they are performed alone

153
Q

performance efficiency

A

the distance between the POC curve and the independence point

154
Q

cost of concurrence

A

the difference between performance for one task alone and dual-task performance

155
Q

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A

states performance is an inverted U-shaped function of arousal level, with the best performance occurring at a higher arousal for simple tasks than for complex tasks

156
Q

perceptual narrowing

A

the restriction of attention that occurs under high arousal

157
Q

vigilance decrement

A

a decrease in vigilance when a task is performed for an extended period of time

158
Q

vigilance

A

sustained attention

159
Q

vigilance task

A

one in which the user is expected to monitor multiple displays simultaneously while having nothing to do for long periods of time between events

160
Q

Normative (one way of how people reason & make decision)

A

choices a rational person males under ideal circumstances (our actual decisions often deviate from this)

161
Q

descriptive (one way of how people reason & make decisions)

A

choices a typical person makes under typical circumstances

Psychology 340 (Ergonomics) (2 decks)

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