Exam 2 Flashcards
What was the daytime vision at milvian bridge?
Daytime A cross of light upon the sun with the words, ‘by this you shall conquer’
What was the nighttime vision?
Christ appeared with a symbol in hand, commanded that a copy be used as his standard (labarum) in battle.
The chi-ro monogram stands for the name of Christ: ΧΡΙΣΤΟC
What does the chi-ro monogram represent?
The name of Christ: ΧΡΙΣΤΟC
What actions did Constantine take to help the Church?
- All confiscated property returned to churches.
- Supports Christianity from pubic funds; active patronage.
- Christian worship is vital to well-being of empire.
- Judicial authority to bishops, including the manumission of slaves
- Building church structures (Roman basilicas).
What did Constantine believe about Christian worship?
It is vital to the well-being of the empire
What judicial authority was granted to bishops under Constantine?
Judicial authority including the manumission of slaves
What significant structures did Constantine promote the building of?
Church structures, specifically Roman basilicas
What was the new capital established by Constantine?
New Rome: Constantinople
What changes in worship practices occurred under Constantine?
Introduction of priestly garments, incense, and processions
What day was made an imperial holiday under Constantine?
Sunday
How did social and political factors influence church membership during Constantine’s time?
Membership was now influenced by social and political factors
What significant relationship was established during Constantine’s reign?
The wedding of imperial power and the church
What does ‘Monasticism’ refer to?
The practice of some Christians withdrawing from society, living a simple and ascetic life.
Monasticism emphasizes a lifestyle focused on spiritual growth and discipline.
What are the two main impulses from within the Church that contributed to Monasticism?
- Jesus tradition
- Pauline tradition
These traditions emphasize different aspects of Christian life and spirituality.
What external influences contributed to Monasticism?
- Philosophical traditions
- Perfecting the soul
- Subjugating bodily passions
These influences helped shape the ascetic practices of monastic life.
What is the meaning of the term ‘monk’?
‘Solitary’ from the Greek ‘monachos’.
This term reflects the lifestyle of early monks who sought solitude for spiritual growth.
Who was Anthony and what is his significance in Monasticism?
He inherited wealth and lived in Egypt.
Anthony is often considered one of the first Christian monks.
What characterized the life of early desert monks?
- Simple diet
- Celibacy
- Work with minimal belongings
Their lifestyle was aimed at spiritual discipline and detachment from worldly possessions.
Who was Pachomius and what was his contribution to Monasticism?
He was the most influential figure in the development of communal monasticism.
Pachomius organized communities around principles of work, devotion, and mutual service.
What hierarchical structure did Pachomius establish in his communities?
Superiors were called ‘abbots’.
This structure helped maintain order and guidance within the monastic community.
What was the role of clergy in Pachomius’ communities?
There was no ordained clergy; they visited nearby churches for Eucharist.
This reflects the self-sufficient nature of early monastic communities. Pachomius’ sister, Mary, organized similar communities for women.
How did the influence of monasticism spread to the church?
Some bishops recognized the value of monastic life for the church’s daily life.
This led to the integration of monastic ideals into church practices.
Who was Athanasius and what was his relationship with monks?
He spent his exiles with monks and sought to pattern his life on monastic ideals.
His experiences helped bridge monastic life with the broader church community.
What transformation did Monasticism undergo over time?
From withdrawal from the world to an instrument for the charitable and missionary work of the church.
This change reflects the evolving role of monks in society.
What are the key elements of the Rule of St. Benedict?
- Discipline but not harshness
- Permanence and obedience
- Opus Dei = daily life punctuated by worship and work
The Rule of St. Benedict laid the foundation for Western monasticism.
What does Opus Dei refer to in the context of the Rule of St. Benedict?
Daily life punctuated by worship and work.
This emphasizes the integration of spiritual and practical aspects of monastic life.
True or False: The first monks sought to imitate the martyrs.
True
Early monks viewed their ascetic lifestyle as a way to emulate the sacrifices of martyrs.
What contexts influenced early Biblical interpretation?
Pastoral and teaching ministry of the church, apostolic work of the church, polemics against Judaism, Christological controversies.
What is typology in the context of Biblical interpretation?
Certain people and events in the Old Testament foreshadow people and events in the New Testament.
What does allegory mean in Biblical interpretation?
The text has a deeper, spiritual and/or moral meaning than the literal meaning.
What is the first guideline Augustine provided for interpreting the Bible?
Respect the literal sense: not every verse has an allegorical meaning.
What must an allegorical interpretation be compatible with according to Augustine?
The rule of faith.
What is the third guideline mentioned by Augustine for interpreting difficult passages?
Use more easily understandable scripture passages to interpret difficult or ambiguous ones.
Define ‘Scripture’ in the context of early Christianity.
Those writings that function authoritatively for the faith and practice of a religious group but lack a formal and fixed number and collection.
What does ‘Canon’ refer to?
A definitive list of those scriptural texts.
When did the New Testament canon find closure?
The 5th century CE.
What are the four stages in the development of the New Testament canon?
Composition, circulation, collection, canon.
What is considered the earliest Christian collection of writings?
Paul’s Letters - seven church composition.
What was the purpose of the Catholic Epistles?
To provide an ‘apostolic balance’ to the Pauline collection.
What writings are included in Athanasius’ festal letter?
Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, Catholic Epistles (James, 1-2 Peter, 1-2-3 John, Jude), 14 Epistles of Paul, Revelation.
What year marks the earliest canon list that corresponds to the New Testament today (Athanasius’ festal letter)?
367 AD.
What were some influences in the formation of the New Testament Canon?
Heterodox groups (Marcion, Gnostics, Montanists), worshipping and teaching practice of the church.
What is the most important factor in the formation of the New Testament Canon?
The worshipping and teaching practice of the church. Those writings that proved useful over long periods of time and across various regions of the church came to be regarded as authoritative.
List the criteria in the formation of the New Testament Canon.
- Apostolicity
- Universality (catholicity)
- Traditional Use
What does apostolicity refer to in the context of the New Testament Canon?
Written by an apostle, written in or near the time of the apostles, been in agreement with apostolic teaching.
What does ‘universality’ or ‘catholicity’ mean in the context of the New Testament Canon?
Relevant to the church across time and place.
What is the relationship between traditional use and the authority of a writing?
The authority of a writing was related to its early and widespread use in the faith and practice of the church.
Was ‘inspiration’ a criterion in the formation of the New Testament Canon?
No.
Arius of Alexandria Theology
priest/presbyter
§ “there was when the Son was not.”
§ “the Son has beginning, but God is without being”
○ God is by nature perfect, that is immutable, impassible, and fixed
○ Since the Logos/Son became human, suffered, and died, the Logos/Son is created and therefore not truly/totally God.
○ Arius is attempting to safeguard monotheism and the nature of God
Alexander of Alexandria Theology
-bishop
§ “Always god always Son.”
§ “At the same time Father, at the same time Son.”
Critique/problem with Arius
○ The traditional understanding of the divinity and eternity of the logos was being denied. ○ Monotheism is actually being compromised/violated.
○ If Jesus was not truly/wholly divine/God, humanity is not reconciled to God.
Council of Nicaea
- Convened in 325, first ecumenical council.
- Called and presided over by Constantine.
- Arius/Arianism is condemned.
After Nicaea Arguments and debates continue
does homoousios diminish the humanity of the Son/Logos?
A form of Arianism actually becomes more influential and accepted.
Homoiusious (similar/like substance or the same being)
Defenders of Nicene’s homoousios
Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria
The Cappadocian Fathers: Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa
Cappadocian Fathers formulation of the trinity
Distinction between ousia (substance and hyposais (substance, person): one ousia, three hyposases
* One God who reveals Godself in three distinct persons; Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
Nestorian Controversy-The two natures (divine and human) are made known by two personas:
the divine does act divine acts (walks on water, resurrects the dead) and the human does human acts (grows in wisdom and stature, gets hungry).
○ Divine and human consists of a conjoining of the two persons.
Nestorius of Constantinople a bishop says Mary:
○ Mary should not be called theotokos (bearer of God) but Christotokos (bearer of Christ)
○ The divine Son/Logos is “joined to the human Christ born of Mary.
Cyril of Alexandria-bishop says that Mary:
○ Mary should be called theotocos (bearer of God) why? Because that’s what we’ve always done!
○ Critical of Nestorius’ teaching of “two person”
○ Divine and human natures consist of a total, real union
Council of Chalecedon (451)
- Chalcedon creed- “Definition of Faith”
- Defines not in terms of explaining but in terms of defining the limits or boundaries of the doctrine.
- Preserves the mystery of the incarnation
- Chalcedon becomes “orthodox for the imperial church churches of the east will continue to hold doctrines outside Chalcedon.
Manichaeism-The Problem of Evil
○ Two eternal principles: Good vs. Evil
○ Dualism of spirit vs. physical
○ Evil is an eternal substance/existence
○ God is totally good and cannot be responsible for evil.
○ Two kingdoms at war in the physical world: the kingdom of Light vs the kingdom of Darkness
Augustine’s response to Manichaeism
○ God is eternally good
○ By definition, evil cannot be eternal
○ So, did God create evil? -no
○ No what God created was good, but because it is created out of nothing it is open to corruption.
○ Creation is corrupted by the misuse of free will-both human and spiritual beings-and is the source of evil.
○ Therefore, evil is a privation or negotiation of the good.
○ Creation has been stained by the marks of sin and the Fall.
Donatism - Validity of Sacraments
○ Emphasize moral and ecclesiastical purity, including the “worthiness” of t bishops/clergy.
○ Particular concern regarding the Traditores (ones who handed over Christian Scriptures for burning during earlier persecutions).
○ Alternative congregations were established.
○ Sacraments performed by those connected with the tradiores are considered invalid
○ Validity of the Sacraments is directly related to the “purity” or “worthiness” of the minister administering the sacrament.
○ Sacraments conveyed grace by the virtue of the minister operating.
Augustine’s response to Donatism
○ The power and validity of the sacrament rest in Christ who is the high priest without sin
○ Priests are simply the agents or instruments through whom Christ administers the sacraments.
○ Ex opere operato (by the act itself).
○ Priests administering need to be properly ordained an in good standing with the church
○ The priest is not the one conveying grace through a sacrament
○ Christ works through the priest to administer grace
The effectiveness of the sacrament is not dependent upon the purity of the minister
Pelagius-how does sin bind humanity?
○ Teaching-humanity sins because we willfully choose to sin; no original sin.
○ Original sin does not exist
○ Affirmed the necessity of God’s assistance in doing good, but that assistance (grace) is given to us by conscious, law, scriptures, and the example of Christ.
○ A christian is theoretically capable of living a sinless life thorough effort and dicipline (he thought it was theoretical rather than an ideal)
Augustine’s response to Pelagius
○ Sin originates with the disobedience of Adam and Eve
○ Original sin is inherited through the line of Adam
○ We are all born in guilt of Adam’s sin and totally corrupted.
○ Man is totally sinful, and God is totally good
○ God’s salvation/grace is irreversible and solely sufficient for salvation
Humanity’s free will in salvation history-according to Augustine
- Before the fall: Humanity was free to sin or not sin
- Between the fall and redemption: Humans are incapable of not sinning. Ours sin nature (thanks to original sin) compels us toward sinfulness.
- After Redemption: Baptism offers freedom from the stain of Original sin and gives humans the freedom to sin or not sin.
- In Heaven: Sin is impossible in heaven and humans are forever free from the desire to sin (free to not sin)>
Eastern (Byzantine) Christianity What was the Church of Hagia Sophia?
A church and center of Eastern Christianity, built by Emperor Justinian in 537. It was converted into a mosque by the invading Turks in 1453 and later became a museum.
Eastern (Byzantine) Which two churches represent the Eastern Christian tradition?
The Greek Orthodox Church and the Russian Orthodox Church.
What was the relationship between the Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Church?
The Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Church were deeply connected, with the belief that Christianity could not exist without an empire.
Who emphasized the unity of the Church and the Empire in the Byzantine tradition?
Patriarch Antony of Constantinople in 1395 stated, “It is not possible for Christians to have a church and not to have an empire. Church and empire have a great unity and community; nor can they be separated from each other.”
Who was John Chrysostom, and why was he called “The Golden Mouth”?
He was the Patriarch of Constantinople (installed in 397 AD) and was known for his eloquent preaching and calls for reform.
What were John Chrysostom’s main criticisms and reforms?
He called for ecclesiastical reform and imperial justice, criticizing the wealth disparity in the church, saying, “One man is hungry, another gets drunk; one man defecates in a silver pot, another has not so much as a crust of bread.”
How did John Chrysostom die, and what is his legacy?
He died of malnutrition and exposure during exile in 406 AD. He is honored in Eastern Christianity as a model theologian—one who preaches and prays well rather than just writing theology.
What are icons in Christian tradition?
Pictures of Christ and saints used as focal points for meditation and prayer in worship, an early practice in Christianity.
Who were the iconoclasts, and what was their argument?
They opposed icons, claiming they violated the biblical prohibition on graven images and only represented Christ’s humanity, limiting his divinity. Emperor Leo III ordered their destruction in 726.
How did John of Damascus defend icons?
He argued that icons testify to the Incarnation (Jesus as the image of God), serve as “text” for the illiterate, and distinguished between worship of God and veneration of images.
What was the outcome of the Iconoclastic Controversy?
The Second Council of Nicaea (787) affirmed the use of icons and restored images in worship.
When did the division between Eastern and Western Christianity begin to take shape?
In the late 8th and early 9th centuries, differences in politics, culture, language, and theology became more pronounced.
What was the controversy over the papacy in the Great Schism?
The West believed in the pope’s primacy over the entire Church (Peter as the rock), while the East saw the pope as “first among equals” (Peter’s faith as the rock).
What was the Filioque Controversy?
The West added “and the Son” to the Nicene Creed, stating that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son, while the East rejected this addition.
What event marked the official break between the Eastern and Western Churches?
On June 16, 1054, the leaders of the Eastern and Western churches excommunicated each other, solidifying the Great Schism.
How does Western (Roman) Christianity approach theology?
It reflects on external authorities such as scripture, creeds, and canonical law, using systematic and propositional articulation of beliefs.
How does Eastern (Byzantine) Christianity approach theology?
It reflects on the liturgy (church worship), which includes scripture and creeds, emphasizing mystery and paradox.
How does Western Christianity define salvation?
In judicial terms, as God’s legal favor or judgment upon human souls.
How does Eastern Christianity define salvation?
In terms of deification, as God reuniting humanity to Godself.
What are the 5 Patriarchs of the early Church?
Rome (Western)
Constantinople (Eastern)
Alexandria
Antioch
Jerusalem
What was the Eastern perspective on the Roman bishop?
The Roman bishop was viewed as “first among equals.”
What was the Roman perspective on the Roman bishop?
The Roman bishop was seen as having primacy over all the Church.
What did the Council of Sardica establish regarding the bishop of Rome?
The bishop of Rome was given the authority to act as an “appellate judge” and adjudicate disputes between bishops.
What does “Roman primacy” refer to?
Roman primacy refers to the belief that the bishop of Rome is the “Successor of Peter.”
What did Pope Leo the Great (440-461) contribute to the concept of Roman primacy?
Pope Leo the Great was the first Pope in the modern sense and was called the “vicar of Peter.” He provided both spiritual and civic leadership, including negotiating with Attila the Hun and preventing the Vandals from burning Rome.
What was Pope Siricius (384-399) known for?
Pope Siricius issued official letters that addressed problems in the Church in other areas, and his letters were considered binding.
What were Pope Gregory the Great’s (590-604) key contributions?
- Political and civic leadership: Repaired aqueducts and city defenses, organized food distribution.
- Religious leadership: Wrote the “Pastoral Rule” for bishops, developed the sacrament of penance, and introduced the doctrine of purgatory.
What event led to the decline of papal authority?
The crowning of Charlemagne (800) as Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III contributed to the decline of papal authority.
What were the Papal reforms of Pope Innocent III (1160-1216)?
Pope Innocent III emphasized the pope’s role as the “Vicar of Christ” and used interdicts as a tool for papal influence.
What was Boniface VIII’s Unam Sanctam bull?
Boniface VIII’s Unam Sanctam bull declared that all earthly power must be subject to the Pope.
What does the term “Sacramentum” mean, and what is it used to translate?
The Latin term “Sacramentum” is used to translate the Greek word “Mysterion,” which refers to the means by which Christians partake in the “mystery of Christ” (Incarnation).
How did Augustine describe the sacraments?
Augustine described the sacraments as the “visible form of invisible grace.”
What are the seven sacraments?
Baptism
Eucharist (Transubstantiation)
Confirmation
Penance (contrition, confession, and satisfaction)
Unction
Holy Orders
Matrimony
What are relics, and why are they significant in Christianity?
Relics are items or objects connected with Christ, an apostle, a martyr, or a saint (e.g., a piece of Christ’s cross, the skull of John the Baptist). They are venerated during pilgrimages and are believed to provide spiritual benefits to pilgrims.
What are the key features of the Franciscans?
Founded by St. Francis of Assisi (d. 1226), the Franciscans focused on poverty, preaching, and helping the poor and sick in the cities. Their women’s counterpart was the “Poor Clares.”
What are the key features of the Dominicans?
Founded by St. Dominic (d. 1221), the Dominicans focused on preaching, teaching, study, and poverty. Their main mission was refuting heresy, and their centers were in the universities of Paris and Oxford.
What is Scholasticism?
Theology developed in the schools of cathedrals and universities. The method involves:
Begin with a question.
Present positions according to earlier authorities.
Come to a concluding answer through logic, focusing on the relationship between faith and reason.
What is Anselm of Canterbury’s famous concept?
“Faith seeking understanding” – applying reason to a truth known by faith.
What is Anselm’s theory of atonement/incarnation?
The severity of sin is infinite because it’s against God. Only a divine-human (God incarnate) can offer infinite satisfaction for human sin through suffering and death.
What is the Ontological Argument for God’s existence according to Anselm?
God is defined as “that-than-which-no-greater-thought-can-be-thought.” Since we cannot think of this being as not existing, existence is inherent to the concept of God.
What is Peter Abelard’s theory of atonement?
The Moral Influence Theory – The incarnation and Christ’s self-giving death demonstrate God’s supreme love, which frees from sin and leads to a life of love.
How did Thomas Aquinas influence Scholasticism?
Aquinas, influenced by Aristotle, argued that faith and reason are complementary but separate. He proposed five arguments for God’s existence based on natural effects (Prime Mover, First Cause, Necessary Cause, Perfect, and Designer).
What is Thomas Aquinas’ view on faith and reason?
Faith and reason have separate spheres but are complementary. Faith relates to revelation (e.g., incarnation and trinity), while reason applies to everything else.
What is Athanasius’ Recapitulation Theory of Atonement?
The incarnation reunites humanity with God, reestablishing the relationship as intended in the beginning. This includes divinization—making humankind divine.
Quote: “For He was made man that we might be made God…”
What is Mysticism and how is it experienced?
Mysticism is the experience of a direct encounter with God or Christ, leading to unity with the divine. It is facilitated through prayer, meditation, and “emptying the soul.” Mystical experiences are often encountered in trances, visions, and auditions.
