Exam 2 Flashcards
levels of structures of proteins
primary
-AA strand
secondary
-alpha helix & beta sheet
tertiary
-folds
quaternary
-multiple
how to denature a protein
-heat
-pH
-enzymes
What is lysozyme? Where is it found? What parts of this protein would predictably be hydrophilic or hydrophobic (review)?
an enzyme in the lysosome, breaks stuff down, hydrophilic outside
how does mRNA exit the nucleus
through nuclear pores
What is unique about the ER membrane?
its the only place membrane proteins can be made
what does the golgi do
processing, modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins and lipids
what does the ER do
moves stuff within the cell
what do vesicles do
transport in cells
pinocytosis vs phagocytosis
pinocytosis
-bring in liquids to cell
phagocytosis
-bring in solids to cell
phagosome vs phagolysosome
phagosome
-vesicle that brings solids in
phagolysosome (phagosome & lysosome fused)
-breaks down the stuff brought in
4 membrane proteins categories
transporter
-protein channel (can have lid)
receptor
-binds to things (ligand)
enzymes
-speeds up reactions, changes shape
anchors
-binds to something outside (extracellular matric/protein
another name for signaling molecule
ligand
whats the extracellular matrix
ECM
How are large molecules (like glucose) transported in/out of the cell?
phagocytosis
What is a conformational shift and why is it important for proteins?
protein changing shape (allow molecule in) performing function
Do conformational shifts change primary, secondary, tertiary, or quaternary structures of proteins?
changes tertiary or quaternary shape
what is osmosis
water moving across membrane to balance solute density
what is cell signaling cascade/signal transduction?
-ligand binds to receptor protein
-signal passed through kinase proteins until it reaches a DNA binding protein
What is typically the last protein in a signaling cascade? What is the ultimate function of this protein/the purpose of the entire cascade?
-dna binding protein
-send signal to DNA
kinase vs phosphatase in signaling cascade
kinase
-phosphorylates
phosphatase
-dephosphorylates
How is ATP involved in the function of a kinase?
kinase takes a phosphate group from ATP
4 types of cell signaling
endocrine
-circulatory system (cell to cell long distance)
-insulin
paracrine
-cell to cell short distance
-viral infection (warning)
autocrine
-makes own ligands
-white BC
contact-dependent
-cells touch each others receptor/ligand
-T cells
What is a tissue?
a group of cells working together to do a job
4 types of tissues in humans
connective
-bone
-support
muscle
-smooth
-movement
nervous
-brain
-communication
epithelial
-skin
-protection
what is an organ?
more than 1 tissue
Where are most of the organelles located in a neuron?
the cell body
What happens at the dendrite of a neuron, and what happens at the axon of a neuron?
dendrite
-signal received
axon
-signal carried
-ion channels run along the nerve
-mylon sheath (created by shwan cells) maintains ion channel gradient
What is the purpose of microvilli in epithelial cells?
increase surface area
how do nutrients move from the digestive tract get to the rest of the body?
absorbed into blood stream
Which type of tissue do you think goes through cell division the most often? Why do you think it needs to do this?
epithelial because wear and tear -> it needs new protection
What is the cytoskeleton? What purpose does it serve?
-made of proteins
-holds cell shape
For the three cytoskeletal proteins, what is the basic structure and their subunits? Where are they found? What purpose do they serve?
microtubule (biggest)
-makes main cell shape
-across entire cell (from centrosomes)
-cylinder twist
-kinesin
microfilament (smallest)
-actin protein (movement)
-around border of cell
-2 strand twist
intermediate filament
-structure (anchor organelles)
-within cell (from desmosome junctions)
-rope shape
Define “chemotaxis”
movement (crawling) of WBC
How can a macrophage (white blood cell) adjust its structure to move around?
chemotaxis
What is kinesin and its function? What does it “walk” across? What does it pull? How is it powered?
-kinesin is a protein
-walks across microtubules
-carries vesicle
-powered by ATP
What are the four types of cell junctions emphasized in class? How are they different in structure and in function?
tight junction
-barrier (selective permeability)
-tight junction protiens squeeze cell borders together ()
adherens junction
-provide structure
-cadherins
desmosome
-cell to cell communication
-cadherins & intermediate filaments
gap junction/ion channels
-ion diffusion
-channel between cells
where are cadherins normally found
cell junctions
-adherens
-desmosome
what is a fibroblast cell
-connective tissue cell
-production & maintenance of ECM
What are the two types of fibers that fibroblasts can make? How are they different?
elastin
-flexible
collagen
-strong, structure
whats ECM of plants vs animals
animals (plasma membrane)
-fibroblasts
-collagen
-elastin
plants (cell wall)
-lignin
-cellulose
What is a vacuole?
-turgor pressure for structural rigidity
-stores water, nutrients, waste
plant vs animal mitochondria
-cellular respiration
-make ATP
chloroplast structure
-double membrane
-thylakoid (single disc-like membrane)
-grana (stack of thylakoids)
-chlorophyll (in the thylakoid membranes)
-stroma (cytoplasm of chloroplasts)
function of chlorophyll
-starts photosynthesis
purpose of photosynthesis
to make sugars that can later be turned into energy
what do plants use sugar for
-energy
-structure
photosynthesis equation
sunlight + 6CO2 + 6H2O -> 6O2 + C6H12O6
light and dark reaction
light reaction (runs 6 times)
uses
-sunlight
+ 3ADP + 3Pi
+ 2H2O
makes
-3 ATP (used in dark)
-2NADPH+H (used in dark)
-O2
dark reaction (runs 6 times)
uses
-1CO2
+3ATP (from light)
+2NADPH+H (from light)
+1RuBP
makes
-2G3P (x6 -> 12G3P) (10 -> RuBP, 2 -> sugar)
-1H2O
What is G3P—where have we seen this before? How many get made from all the runs of the dark reaction and what do they get used for?
-G3P was in glycolysis (3 carbons with 1 phosphate group)
-12 made from the 6 runs
-10 turn to 6 RuBP
-2 turn into 1 sugar
whats another name for calvin cycle
dark cycle
How many times must the light reaction run in order to generate the full requirements for sugar production? Why?
6 times to make what’s needed for dark reaction
What type of molecule is chlorophyll?
a dye
What are the different chlorophyll types and their colors?
chlorophyll a
-dark green
chlorophyll b
-light green
carotene
-orange
Where is chlorophyll made?
inside a thylakoid
chlorophyll structure
-1 Mg, 4 N, big spiderweb ring
-phytol side chain (looks like carbon chain)
What are the names of the five major proteins involved in the Light Reaction and where are they located? What function do they each perform?
(in thylakoid membrane)
Photosystem II (activated by photons)
-absorbs photons and passes e-
-H2O->O2
Cytochrome b (activated by electrons)
-H pump
Photosystem I (activated by photons)
-absorbs photons and passes e-
NADP reductase (activated by photons and electrons)
-NADP->NADPH
ATP synthase (activated by gradient)
-ADP & Pi -> ATP
-H pump
Describe the Light Reaction in 7 steps.
- sun hits chlorophyll & e- released
- e- activation PS II (H2O -> O2 + 4H)
- electron activated cytochrome b (pump 2H across membrane)
- e- transfer to PS I
- e- transfer to NADP Reductase
- e- lost hurrah to cytochrome b (pump 1 H across membrane)
- 3H return through ATP synthase & spin 1 time each makes 3 ATP total
What is RuBP? How many carbons does it have?
-Rubulos Bisphosphate
-5 carbons
What is G3P? How many carbons does it have? When is it made? What is it used for?|
-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (sugar molecule)
-3 carbons
-made during reduction
-used to make RuBP and sugar
steps of the calvin cycle
- carboxylation
-add phosphate group
-add C from CO2 (5 carbon chain now 6) - reduction
-splits
-add new phosphates (Pi on both sides again)
-phosphates stolen (from 1 side, NADP made)
-now its G3P - regeneration
-waits for cycle to run x6
-when 12 G3P…
10 G3P -> 6 RuBP
2 G3P -> 1 sugar
what energy molecules are needed for calvin cycle
-3 ATP
-2NADPH+H
cell division types
prokaryotes
-binary fission
eukaryotes
-mitosis
-meiosis
mitosis vs meiosis
mitosis
-makes exact copy of cell
-replace dead cell
meiosis
-reproduction
-egg & sperm
prokaryote vs eukaryote
prokaryote
-circular, non segmented, no nucleus DNA
-simultaneous transcription
-smaller
eukaryote
-linear, segmented, nucleus, DNA
How many chromosome sets do we have in our human cells?
23 sets, 46 chromosomes total
chromosome
contains genetic info
gene
DNA sequence
parts of a gene (regions)
promoter region
-binding site for RNA polymerase
-turns gene on/off
coding region
-contains the genetic code (for R groups for proteins)
genome
all DNA for an organism/species
homologous chromosomes
carry same genes, same order, different alleles
epigenetics
cells choose the genes they express (bc of environment)
segmented genome
how DNA is split between chromosomes instead of 1 big piece
are homologous chromosomes exactly the same
no, same set up diff alleles
diploid vs haploid vs gamete
diploid
-2 sets of chromosomes (full)
haploid
-1 set of chromosomes (half)
gamete
-type of haploid cell
centromere
the center of chromosome, or part where sister chromatids connect
chromosome vs homologous chromosome vs sister chromatids
chromosome
-the individual one
sister chromatid
-2 chromosomes connected at centromere (after copying, identical)
homologous chromosomes
-pair where one from dad and one from mom (can be individual or sister, not identical)
histone proteins vs nucleosome
-8 histone proteins make a nucleosome
-DNA wraps around nucleosome which coils to condense DNA
daughter cells
the result of cell division, mitosis or meiosis
steps of binary fission
- DNA attached to plasma membrane
- make a copy of DNA & keep it attached
- move each chromosome copy to the end (protein moves DNA)
- pinch plasma membrane to divide the cell
When DNA is depicted as an X, what is either side?
copied DNA
What are the two ways DNA can organize itself in the nucleus? How can you tell the difference?
condensed vs chromatin
G0 and cell cycle
G0
-when a cell is not dividing
G1
-gap phase, makes proteins (DNA polymerase)
S
-DNA synthesis
G2
-gap phase, makes proteins (centrosomes)
M
-division (M&M)
mitosis vs meiosis
mitosis
-produced diploid daughter cells
-no recombination
-1 cell cycle 1 PMAT
meiosis
-produces haploid daughter cells
-recombination
-1 cell cycle 2 PMAT
steps of mitosis
prophase
-DNA condenses
-get rid of nucleus
-make spindle of protein
-degrade nuclear membrane
metaphase
-organize DNA on the spindle
anaphase
-pull sister chromatids
telophase
-form nuclear membrane
-cytokinesis (divide cells in half)
-decondense the chromosomes
Which organelle is essential to have on both sides of the cell before cytokinesis? What happens, or could happen, with the other organelles?
-centrosome needs to be on both sides
-the others can distribute unevenly
How is plant cell division different from animal cell division?
plant cell division
-cell plate
animal cell division
-contractile ring
Explain PMAT I and II in the context of meiosis. In what stage does genetic crossover/recombination occur? Why is it necessary?
PMAT I (46 ->23)
Prophase I
-recombination at prophase I only
Metaphase I
-lined up in middle, in pairs
Anaphase I
-pull a sister chromatid to each side
Telophase
-uneven splitting of organelles
PMAT II (23 -> 23, split sisters in half same number)
Prophase II
-don’t have to recondense (bc didn’t go back to chromatin yet)
Metaphase II
-lined up in middle, single file
Anaphase II
-pull apart sister chromatids
Telophase II
-more even splitting of organelles
What is the one rule of genetic crossover (how do we define a gene)?
segments of DNA that code for a particular trait or protein and are located at specific loci (positions) on a chromosome.
What type of cell is ultimately generated by meiosis?
a haploid cell, specifically a gamete
Explain the differences in the amount/nature of genetic information between haploid and diploid cells.
diploid cell
-46 chromosomes
haploid
-23 chromosomes (bc division x2)
-recombined
how do mitosis and meiosis compare in drawings
meiosis II looks like mitosis except
-half as many sister chromatids
-recombination
meiosis I is the weird one bc they
-split up pairs of sister chromatids
-never break up sisters
How is the production of the Oocyte (Egg) different than the production of the sperm? Why is that?
sperm
-split even organelles
-all 4 survive
egg
-split unevenly organelles
-1 of 4 survive
In what way do nucleosomes control gene expression? When are they present in the DNA?
-they control which genes are available (not wrapped up) and can be transcribed
-they are present when DNA is condensed
How is prokaryotic DNA kept together within a cell? In what way is it different than eukaryotic? Similar?
-bacterial core protein
-it structures and compacts the DNA WITHOUT histones
What is a plasmid? Is it considered part of the genome?
-small separate DNA speck, not part of the genome
-contains genes for useful proteins (antibiotic resistance)
Give an example of when a plasmid would be kept and when it wouldn’t.
KEPT- provides antibiotic resistance
TRASHED- offers no advantage
Understand the general concept of antibiotic resistance and how it relates to plasmids.
Plasmids can carry and spread antibiotic resistance genes
How can doctors check for resistance? What examples were given in class?
giving medication and evaluating resistance
antibiotics
substances that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria
two kinds of bacteria
pathogenic
-causes diseases or infections
commensal
-to improve health, necessary
how to bacteria perform recombination
conjugation
-transfer of genetic material between bacteria
what is chlorophylls function
-hold Mg
-gets excited by sunlight and drops an e- to PS II
when NADP becomes NADPH is it being oxidized or reduced
reduced (gain electron)
what does RUB stand for (guest speaker)
-read laterally
-upstream
-bias check
what does MLS stand for (guest speaker)
medical laboratory science
why do they look at blood clotting
-clotting can reveal nutrient deficiency/ conditions
what does NMDP stand for (guest speaker)
national marrow donor program
why would someone need a bone marrow transplant (guest speaker)
if they have a blood cancer, need stem cells
What section of your DNA does the bone marrow registry sequence and why?
sequence immune genes specifically MHC because they need to match or will be attacked
