Exam 2 Flashcards
Define Heritability
= the proportion of variance in phenotype that can be accounted for by variance in genotype
○ conduct behavioral genetics research
○ additive genetic effects (influenced by both mother and father)
Define Sexual strategies theory
= presence of father in home affects relationships in mate preference
-perspective of resources being temporary
Ex: absent father
-more partners, children earlier, sex earlier
Example of individual differences: What is the most heritable thing we have discussed?
Height
Heritable: 90% (.90)
Environment: 10%
-diet and nutrition
Yes or no: Can the amount of heritability for specific traits be applied on a personal level?
No
Ex:
On an individual level, ones height isn’t 90% heritable and 10% environment
Define the heritability of openness
= the extent to which differences in openness can be accounted for by differences in genes
List of clarifications on heritability to know:
§ Heritability can’t be applied to a single individual
§ Heritability is not constant
§ Heritability is not precise
§ Nature vs Nurture
Define Genotype
= a person’s total collection of genes
□ Variance in genotype = people differ in which genes they have
Define Phenotype
= sum of all of a person’s observable traits
○ The outcome or what is manifested from genes
○ Things observed in the world
○ Ex: height, personality, intelligence
○ Variance in phenotype = people differ in looks, personality, IQ, etc.
(Differences between people)
To what degree is variability in language spoken due to variability in genes or in the environment?
Specific language spoken is due to culture and the environment in which someone is exposed to
Personality characteristics are 30-50% heritable. Which are the ones over 50% heritable?
- Extraversion 60%
* Neuroticism 54%
* Big Five 50%
* Temperament 50%
* Aggressiveness 50-70%
* Alcoholism 50-70%
* Violent crime 50%
Personality characteristics are 30-50% heritable. Which are the ones under 50% heritable?
- General well-being 38%
- Self-esteem 32%
Partner preferences 10%
Clarifying Nature vs. Nurture: Individual level. Which is more important, genes or the environment?
Neither one is more important; both genes and environment are necessary
® Each individual contains genes, and those genes need environments in order to be expressed
®Ex: Like asking whether a finished cake is “caused” more by the eggs or the flour
Clarifying Nature vs. Nurture: Group level. Which is more important, genes or the environment?
One may be more important than the other, on average, to explain certain characteristics
Ex: If you have 100 cakes, it makes sense to ask whether the differences among the cakes in, say, sweetness is caused more by differences in the amount of flour used or by differences in the amount of sugar used
Pros on Implications of Heritability:
□ Our genetics have real and important influences on our lives
○ Genetics research gives us important knowledge
○ Ex: When making decisions about your own health (skin cancer, problematic drinking, etc.)
○ People can be aware of/ prepare based on their genetic propensities
○ Genetics research is important because of the knowledge it gives us about truths that have practical implications for our lives.
- Adopting
- Health
- Understand themselves better
Cons on Implications of Heritability:
□ If we believe personality is predetermined by genetics…
-People may feel less responsible for harmful behavior
-People may not put in as much effort
-Eugenics- only certain people are allowed to live/reproduce
-Potential for misuse of findings from genetics research
Where do personality estimates come from? / What are the methods of behavioral genetics? (4)
-Selective breeding/ artificial selection
-Family studies
-Twin studies
-Adoption studies
Methods of behavioral genetics: Selective breeding
○ Only works if the desired traits are at least somewhat hereditary
○ physical qualities like webbed paws or behavioral/personality like friendliness
○ Artificial selection= man made
○ Labrador retriever vs. Chesapeake bay retriever
○ The fact that selective breeding has been so successful with dogs tells us that heredity must be a factor in the personality traits, such as boldness, aggressiveness, agreeableness, and desire to please, that were successfully selected.
Methods of behavioral genetics: Family studies
○ Parents, children, and siblings share 50% of their genes
○ Grandparents and grandchildren share 25%
○ First cousins share 12.5%
○ If a trait is highly heritable, then family members who possess that trait will be more similar to those to whom they are more closely related than those to whom they are more distantly related
○ Ex) If a parent is highly agreeable, then we can infer the kids might be agreeable. We cannot infer the same for nieces and nephews
What are the downsides of family studies?
○ Downside is that family members who share the same genes also typically share similar environments. Two members of a family might be similar not because a given personality characteristic is heritable, but rather because of a shared environment. For example, certain brothers and sisters may be similar on shyness not because of shared genes, but because of shared parents.
Methods of behavioral genetics: Twin studies
○ Identical twins (Monozygotic)
○ 100% of genes the same
○ Fraternal twins (Dizygotic)
○ 50% of genes the same
(like normal siblings)
○ Whether identical or fraternal, they share similar environments most of the time
○ But different level of genetic relatedness
If identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins on any given trait, then that trait is more heritable
(similarity score between 2 identical - similarity score between 2 fraternal)
Methods of behavioral genetics: Adoption studies
○ Give tests to adopted children
○ Ex: personality, IQ
○ Give the same tests to adoptive parents and biological parents
○ If children are more similar to their adoptive parents on a trait, that trait is more environmental
○ If similar to biological parents…genetic
With adoption studies tend to see adoption children are more similar to their biological parents then their adopted parents
What are the two types of environmental influence?
Shared vs non-shared environment
Define shared environment
= non-genetic influences that make siblings more alike
○ Ex: divorce, school, neighborhood, parents’ income
○ Smaller factor influencing personality
○ Traits that have a substantial shared-environment influence:
□ Religious beliefs
□ Political orientation
□ Health behaviors
◊ Smoking & drinking
□ Antisocial behavior
◊ Ex: breaking the rules
□ Depressive symptoms
Define non-shared environment
non-genetic influences that make children more different
○ Friend group, hobbies, other differences due to age difference
Which environmental influence has the most influence?
Non-shared environment
For most personality variables, the shared environment has almost no impact
Most of the environmental influence on a trait comes from the children’s unique experiences
Define Genotype environment interaction
= the differential response of individuals with different genotypes to the same environments
- Abusive parenting may lead to antisocial personalities in children
- But only for children of a certain genotype
- Similar links have been found between childhood maltreatment, depression, and particular genes
Define Genotype-environment correlation
= the differential exposure of individuals with different genotypes to different environments
The genetic influence will cause what you surround yourself, shaping your environment
Ex: the shy kid leaning into antisocial setting vs. extroverted leaning into a social setting
What are the 3 types of Genotype-environment correlation?
-Passive
-Reactive
-Active
Types of Genotype-environment correlation: Passive
= you receive genes and environment from parents
* Ex: your parents also have high verbal ability and are avid readers, so they keep more books in the home
* Unintentionally exposed to an environment that facilitates a certain genotype
Types of Genotype-environment correlation: Reactive
=your parents react to you in certain ways because of your genetic tendencies
- Ex: parents sign you up for more teams because you are more athletic than your brother
- Parents tend to be warmer toward more upbeat, optimistic children
○ Creating a calmer, warmer environment - Parents react to curious children by exposing them to different toys, situations, ideas
- Genes affect environment because of the way your parents react to your genes.
Types of Genotype-environment correlation: Active
=you seek out athletic events because you like them
- You seek out environments because of your genetic tendencies
- Ex: Openness to experience
○ Enjoy art and going to art museums
○ Move to cities with more art museums and meet more friends who enjoy art - Genotype leads to the creation or seeking out of a particular environment
Define sex
= label you were assigned at birth given biological factors
-sex differences
Define sex differences
= an average difference between women and men on certain characteristics
If sex differences exist, how can we quantify them?
Effect sizes
Define Gender
= social interpretations of what it means to be a man or woman
Gender stereotypes
= beliefs about how men and women differ or are supposed to differ, in contrast to what the differences actually are
Define Effect sizes
strength of the difference between two variables
○ Ex: women’s agreeableness vs. men’s agreeableness
○ Refers to the average man/woman
On an individual level:
○ Some women can throw farther than the average man
○ Some men can’t throw as far as the average woman
What are the effect sizes (Cohen’s d)?
§ 0.2- small difference
§ 0.5- medium difference
§ 0.8- large differences
A difference in standard deviation
○ Negative d= women score higher than men on that trait
○ Positive d= men score higher than women on that trait
Define standard deviation
= a measure of how spread out the data points are from the mean; a way to assess how far apart the data is
What is the largest gender difference of the Big 5?
Neuroticism
D= -49
Especially women experience high anxiety (d= -0.54) and fearfulness (d= 1.04)
Define the People-things dimension
○ People- like thinking about people, planning on career helping others
○ Thing dimension- find work by yourself (ex: programming)
○ d= 1.35
(men are more likely to work with things while women are more likely to work with people)
Context affecting the expression of gender differences: Assertiveness
○ Men are higher in assertiveness
○ One result: they interrupt more
§ Specifically in mixed-gender groups
§ May be influenced by perceived social acceptability for men to do this
Context affecting the expression of gender differences: Agreeableness
§ D= -32 overall
+more trusting & empathetic
§ Women score higher than men on measures of agreeableness, but this difference decreases in all-female
§ Men are slighly more cooperative in same-sex groups, the presence of women in the group changes this dynamic and makes them more likely to interrupt women
§ Men score higher than women on measures of physical aggression
§ But women score similarly to men on measures of indirect aggression, such as verbal insults and gossip
§ And this difference increase in all-male groups
Context affecting the expression of gender differences: Conscientiousness
§ D= -.14 overall
(Women slightly scoring higher than men)
§ Could result in a lot of arguments between marriage partners about housecleaning over the course of a year
Context affecting the expression of gender differences: Openness to experience
§ Essentially no sex differences (d= -0.07)
Context affecting the expression of gender differences: Neuroticism
§ Largest gender difference of the big 5
§ D= -0.49
§ Women especially high in anxiety (d= -0.54) & fearfulness (d= 1.04)
-being cut off from the group might be more costly for women
Who tends to smile more?
Women (d= -0.60)
Do men or women feel certain emotions more frequently?
§ women feel most of these emotions more often
§ No difference in pride and guilt
§ Affection – biggest sex difference, d = -.30
Do men vs women feel certain emotions more intensely?
- Women feel most of these emotions more intensely
- No difference in pride
- Sadness, joy, and fear – biggest sex differences
* d = -.28
* d = -.26
* d = -.26
How do self-esteem gender differences change across the lifespan?
-Trend of women being higher in poor self-esteem than men, possibly due to sexual maturity
-As people get older, the difference becomes smaller
How does depression gender differences change across the life span?
No gender difference in childhood
But after puberty, twice as common in women as men
-largest difference during ages 18-44
Depression affects young people more than older people, but rates may be increasing in older people
How does sexual aggression gender differences change across the life span?
○ Men more likely to force sex upon an unwilling partner
○ Although the sexes differ overall, it appears to be limited to a small subset of men who are high on the dark triad traits
○ Possibly due to sexual maturity (focus on physical appearance of girls)
Socialization theory
○ Gender differences come from social norms
* Men and women are socialized differently through social roles
○ Young boys are encouraged to be masculine
* Given masculine toys
* Praised for playing rough
* Punished for crying
○ Young girls are encouraged to be feminine
* Praised for being obedient
* Comforted when crying
Subtype of Socialization theory: Social Learning theory
□ Children learn by watching adult behavior
□ Girls watch mom and Boys watch dad
○ And other gender role models
Even when gendered behavior isn’t specifically encouraged, they learn by watching
Subtype of Socialization theory: Social Role
□ Men and women expected to have different roles
® Breadwinner vs. homemaker
® Children take on qualities related to these roles
® In the process of taking on these roles, we develop qualities that match these roles society imposes on us
® Women – empathetic and nurturing
® Men – tough and aggressive
For both men & women in the supervisor vs supervisee study: ◊ Supervisor acted more dominant
Supervisee acted more submissive
Hormonal theories
Refers to whether hormones cause sex-linked behavior
-Testosterone: Men>
-Good experimental evidence that links increased testosterone to aggression
Problem: don’t explain where sex differences in levels of testosterone came from…
- Only tells us what they are correlated with or MAY predict
Evolutionary theory
Men and women are only different in areas of personality where different adaptive problems are faced
Similar: Both taste preferences for sugar, fat, salt, and protein; adaptive challenge of attaining calories for survival
Different in domains of mating and sexuality:
§ Reproduction
-Women must gestate a fetus for nine months
-Men can reproduce through a single act of sex
§ Securing resources:
-Historically, women faced the challenge of collecting enough resources, especially while pregnant
What are the functions of stereotypes?
manage the possible opportunities and threats presented by others
§ Ex: men tended to be more physically aggressive than women throughout history
§ Understanding this, and categorizing men as aggressive, was useful to predict the behavior of others
§ Simplify the very complex world
DefineSex-age stereotypes
= specific beliefs that we hold about people of a specific sex and age
§ Provided useful information about life goals
§ Men stereotyped as oriented towards short-term mating goals
§ Especially true at younger ages
§ Women stereotyped as more communal than men
§ But men stereotyped more communal with age
What is the integrated perspective on the theories on sex differences?
None are better than the other; different levels of analysis
-Evolutionary theories suggest why the sexes differ but do NOT always say HOW they became different
-Hormonal and socialization theories specify how the sexes became different but do NOT specify WHY they became different
Define the Theory of Gendered Cognition
§ Perceive the world through a lens of masculinity and femininity
§ Evolutionarily adaptive
○ A synthesis of evolutionary and social role theories
○ May explain why we tend to categorize things as masculine and feminine so easily
-ex: “Boy dinner” and “girl dinner”
Define Skin conductance
= the salt ions in sweat conduct electricity
§ This is a way to measure anxiety, and the sympathetic nervous system plays a role in this.
§ SNS: regulates fight or flight response (sympathetic nervous system)
§ Higher neuroticism = higher skin conductance
- tends to show skin conductance even in the absence of stimuli
Define Arousal response
= heart racing and blood pressure rising
A physiological response (involuntary)
Morningness-Eveningness
a stable characteristic
§ Due to differences in underlying biological rhythms
§ Shorter biological rhythms= morning person
Longer biological rhythms= evening person
Define Circadian rhythms
= biological processes that fluctuate around a 24 or 25 hour cycle
○ Ex) body temperature, endocrine secretion rates
compatibility appears to predict relationship success (roomates + intimate relationships)
Temporal Isolation Design
What is Cloninger’s Tri-dimensional model consist of?
§ Dopamine-> novelty seeking
§ Serotonin-> harm avoidance
§ Norepinephrine-> reward dependence
Define Sensation-seeking
= tendency to seek out thrilling and exciting activities, take risks, and avoid boredom
§ Being high is linked to:
○ Riskier bets in gambling
○ More sexual partners
○ Skydiving
Define neurotransmitters
= chemicals that are released from nerve cells that carry messages from one nerve to another
○ ‘Chemical messengers’
○ They must be removed from the synapse after the message has passed
§ Otherwise message will be sent repeatedly
Define MAO (Monoamine Oxidase)
an enzyme that is in charge of regulating the breakdown of neurotransmitters
○ Too much MAO:
Neurotransmitters are broken down too quickly >More control over thoughts and behaviors >Low sensation-seeking
○ Too little MAO:
Neurotransmitters are broken down too slowly >Less control over thoughts and behaviors
>High sensation-seeking
Define ARAS (Ascending reticular activating system)
= a structure in the brain stem that regulates the brain’s arousal level by regulating the amount of electrical activity in the brain
§ It is like a gate that controls nervous system stimulation entering the brain. ○ When gate is mostly closed, brain’s arousal level is lower. § The gate opens and closes at different times for everyone, but it opens wider for some people than for others.
What did Donald Hebb propose?
○ Everyone is trying to reach an “optimal level of arousal”
○ Focused; not bored or anxious
○ Controversial during the time; most thought we were trying to reach a low level of arousal
§ Introverts & Extroverts reach optimal level of arousal differently
○ Introverts: stronger arousal response
§ ARAS lets in more stimulation
§ Don’t need much arousal from environment
○ Extraverts: weaker arousal response
§ ARAS lets in less stimulation
§ Seek out arousal in environment
Define Reinforcement Sensitivity
○ Sensitivity to reward and punishment
○ Based on two systems in the brain:
-BIS- behavioral inhibition system
-BAS- behavioral activation system
Define BIS (behavioral inhibition system)
○ Regulates strength of response to punishment, frustration, uncertainty
○ Leads to avoidance behavior
(brake system / stop sign)
○ Stronger BIS > BAS associated with anxiety
-related to skin conductance
Define BAS (behavioral activation system)
○ Regulates strength of response to incentives & reward
○ Leads to approach behavior
(accelerator / green light)
○ Stronger BAS > BIS associated with impulsivity
What are the separate personality traits based on the different level combinations between BIS and BAS?
○ Low on both? Emotional stability
○ High on both? Neurotic
○ Low anxiety, high impulsivity (low BIS and high BAS) – Extraversion
○ High anxiety, low impulsivity (high BIS and low BAS) – Introversion
Cultural influence WEIRD stands for
○ Western
○ Educated
○ Industrialized
○ Rich
○ Democratic
What are the main goals of Cultural Personality Psychology?
○ Discover principles underlying cultural diversity
○ Examine how psychology and culture influence each other
-Cultural variation focuses on the between-group differences
What are the 3 approaches to explore personality across cultures?
-Evoked culture
-Transmitted culture
-Cultural universals
Define Evoked culture
= cultural differences that results from differences in physical environment
○ 2 requirements for examining variation in evoked culture:
§ Universal underlying mechanism
§ Differences in environment that activate these mechanisms to varying degrees
What are the 4 types of Evoked culture?
-Evoked cooperation
-Evoked mating strategies
-Culture of honor
-Cultural differences in conformity
Define Evoked cooperation
= variance conditions in resources
○ High-variance conditions
® Meat sharing in hunter-gatherer societies
® Beneficial to share (helping each other out); Extra meat would spoil anyways
® Low variance food (i.e., acquired through gathering) is NOT shared
® Egalitarianism
® Disapproval for being stingy
○ Low-variance conditions
® Economic inequality
Define Evoked mating strategies
○ Life history theory
® “Fast” life strategy- early reproduction
} Experienced harsh, rejecting, unpredictable childhood environment
} Impulsive, earlier puberty and sexual debut, more short-term partners
} Food, parental care, and other resources are inconsistent, parental marital discord – cannot rely on a single mate for life
® “Slow” life strategy- delayed reproduction
} Responsive, supportive, predictable childhood environment
} Committed and stable marriage
} parental marital harmony – expect to attract a stable, high-investing mate
○ Cultural differences in these strategies
E.g. China and Sweden
Define Culture of honor
○ Insults are offensive challenges
® Must confront and aggress in response
○ Determined by economic means of subsistence
® Herding economy
® Agricultural economy
○ Northerners
® Historically, an agricultural economy
○ Southerners
® Historically, a herding economy
® Not more violent
® Unless for protection or in response to insults
Define Herding economy
= reputation is important for theft prevention
® Livestock can be stolen overnight. Building a reputation of being aggressive/difficult to mess with is important
® Economy build on lifestock (ex: sheep)
Define Agricultural economy
= theft of subsistence is less common
® Crops are harder to steal
® Economy built on agriculture (ex: corn)
Define Cultural differences in conformity
○ Disease causing pathogens > pressure to conform
○ Immune system and behavioral immune system
® Social avoidance of the diseased
○ Salient and prevalent pathogen threat
® More introverted
® More conforming to group norms
○ Low pathogen threat
® More tolerant of nonconformity
® Ex: not as pressured to wear a mask
-“Tightness” vs “looseness”
Define “Tightness” vs “looseness”
® Tightness- more likely to conform
® Looseness- more open
○ Avoiding people with open sores, people who cough, etc.
You might also get sick easily if you deviate from group norms such as cooking traditions, so more conforming
Define Transmitted Culture
= ideas, values, attitudes, and beliefs transmitted through social interaction
Seemingly random
What are the 3 types of Transmitted culture?
-Cultural differences in moral values
-Cultural differences in self-concept
-Cultural differences in religiosity
Define Cultural differences in moral values
○ Some moral values are specific to cultures
® “Finder’s keepers” in the US vs “one must return others’ lost possessions” in China
® Consumption of beef (Hindu) ® Eating beef is a serious moral violation in Hinduism
® Sexual intercourse during daytime (Semang of Malaysia) ®Semang is an ethnic minority group in Malaysia
○ Transmitted across generations through teaching and observations
-Some theories have been proposed to explain moral similarities across cultures
Define Cultural differences in self-concept
○ The way we define ourselves; guides behaviors in self-presentation
○ Independent vs. interdependent self-view
-Independence: how you stand out from a group
(Unique abilities, internal motives & dispositions + agency, individualism, western cultures)
-Interdependence: affiliation, attachment, engagement with larger group
(Relationships and embeddedness + communion, collectivism, non-Western cultures)
Cultural differences in information processing + self-enhancement + personality
Define Acculturation
When people shift their self-concepts and adopt ones similar to those of the adopted culture
Define Holistic processing
= the tendency to explain events with attention to relationships, context, and the links between focal objects and the field as a whole § Interdependent
§ Predominant among Japanese § Looking at relationships like mittins and gloves (function together; part of larger group)
Define Analytic processing
= the tendency to explain events with the object detached from its context § Independent § Looks at categorical groupings like mittins and scarf (shared categories; clothing items) § These differences even emerge as differences in neural activity
Rice Theory of Culture
Define Cultural differences in self-enhancement
§ Tendency to describe and present oneself positively
Define cultural differences in personality
Between-culture variation § Stereotypes of personality based on nationality are inaccurate § Most robust between-culture difference: Extraversion § Americans and Europeans > Asians and Africans § Little variation across cultures
Within-culture variation
§ Socioeconomic status (SES), generation, local
§ Much variance within cultures
Define Cultural differences in religiosity
§ A representation in one person’s mind that is transmitted to another
-pass down from cultural institutions, parents to children, etc.
§ Religion as a set of specialized adaptations
-adaptive benefits of group membership
§Religion as a byproduct of adaptations designed for nonreligious functions
-not original goal of adaptation
Hyperactive agency detection device, Theory of mind adaptations, Attachment system
Define Hyperactive agency detection device
=unseen forces perceived as human agents § Precautionary adaptation
§ We mistake a shadow for a burglar but never a burglar for a shadow- one mistake is costlier than the other ◊ This tendency leads us to apply anthropomorphisms to nonhuman entities
◊ Small step from here to infer a higher power with human-life agency who wants us to pray and obey
Define Theory of mind adaptations
= infer unseen beliefs, desires, and intentions in other people ◊ Helps us predict the behavior of other people
◊ A small extrapolation: } From “there are people watching me who have a desire for my well-being” to “there is an all-seeing god watching me who has a desire for my well-being” } Predicting behavior to feel more secure that someone else at a higher power has your best interest
Define Attachment system
= originally evolved in the context of parent-infant relationships
◊ Ex: baby’s being useless & vulnerable, solve adaptive problem through crying & other noises ◊ “…we never lose the longing for a caretaker… [and] a god is always there for us”
Subsection of Cultural differences in moral values: Moral Foundations Theory (MFT)
® Evolutionary theory of origins of moral reasoning
® Rational moral judgements (good/bad, right/wrong) are based on foundations
® Foundations evolved to solve challenges of group life faced by ancestors
® Foundations are universal but expression varies
® Upbringing, culture
® Foundations are intuitive
® Moral judgements happen quickly
® A feeling of good/bad, right/wrong, or like/dislike that appears suddenly without any conscious awareness of weighing evidence or thinking actively
® Complex moral judgments serve to justify the initial wave of intuition
What are the specific foundations of Moral Foundations Theory (MFT)?
-Care
-Fairness
-Loyalty
-Authority
-Purity
Moral Foundations Theory (MFT): Care
= concerned with preventing harm to others, especially vulnerable humans and animals
} Ex: Would you rather…
– Stick a pin in your palm
– Stick a pin into the palm of a child you don’t know
Moral Foundations Theory (MFT): Fairness
= revolves around ideas of justice, rights, and equality
} Ex: Would you rather…
– Accept an expensive TV that a friend of yours wants to give you, knowing your friend got the TV a year ago when the company made it sent by mistake & at no charge, to your friend
– Accept an expensive TV your friend wants to give you, knowing they bought the TV a year ago from a thief who had stolen it from a wealthy family
Moral Foundations Theory (MFT): Loyalty
= emphasizes loyalty to one’s group, family, or nation; values include patriotism, allegiance, and self-sacrifice for the group
} Ex: Would you rather …
– Say something slightly bad about your nation (which you don’t believe to be true) while calling in, anonymously, to a talk-radio show in your nation
– Say something slightly bad about your nation (which you don’t believe to be true) while calling in, anonymously, to a talk-radio show in a foreign nation
Moral Foundations Theory (MFT): Authority
= focuses on respect for tradition and legitimate authority; values include social order, hierarchy, and duty
} Ex: Would you rather…(with their permission)
– Slap a friend in the face as part of a comedy skit
– Slap your father in the face as part of a comedy skit
Moral Foundations Theory (MFT): Purity
= focuses on the idea of purity or sanctity, often in the context of religious beliefs; values the sacredness of certain ideas, objects, or practices, especially the body and religion
} Ex: Would you rather…
– Attend a performance art piece in which the actors act like fools for 30 minutes, including failing to solve simple problems and falling repeatedly on stage
– Attend a performance art piece in which the actors act like animals for 30 minutes, including crawling around naked and urinating on stage
