exam 2 Flashcards
what are some examples of infectious diseases?
Smallpox, Hepatitis, syphilis, influenza, measles, cholera, bubonic plague
In which ways were infectious disease eradicated in the 1960’s?
- immunization (vaccinations)
- public health measures: pasteurization of milk, proper disposal of sewage, purification of water, improvements in personal hygiene and nutrition
- antibiotics
What are the different types of infectious agents?
parasites, bacteria, viruses
give an example of a parasite, bacteria, and virus
parasite: ringworm, pin worm, roundworm
bacteria: staphylococci, tuberculosis, syphillis
virus: hepatitis, HIV, small pox, coronavirus
What are some means of transmission for infectious diseases?
- water
-food - vectorsliving organisms that transfer from one hose to another like animals
- aerosols:
-fecal to oral
The chain of infection transmission pattern in linked between what?
pathogen, reservoir, mode of transmission, and susceptible host
what are the components of the chain of infection?
- susceptible host ( babies, children, elderly, immunocompromised people, unimmunized people, anyone)
- infectious agent (parasite, virus, bacteria)
- reservoir ( food, water, soil, human, wild animals, pets)
portal exit: mouth ( saliva, vomit), cut in the skin (blood), diapering and toileting (stool)
-mode of transmission: contact (toys, hands, sand), droplets( sneeze, cough, or speak) - portal of entry: mouth, eyes, cuts in the skin
how do public health measures relate to the chain of infection?
public health measure aim to interrupt the chain of infection by targeting its most vulnerable links
How is eradication possible?
if there’s is no human reservoir and if the vaccine exists
when was small pox eradicated? is Polio eradicated everywhere/
- small pox was eradicated in 1977
polio is eradicated in the western hemisphere but is still in other countries. in these other countries there is opposition of getting vaccinations due to various reasons (lack. of trust in the government, moral/ religious beliefs, misinformation )
what are the public health measures that are aimed against infectious disease?
- contact tracing
- epidemiological surveillance
- quarantine
immunization and treatment of those who are infected
what is herd/ community immunity? what are the thresholds for herd immunity for certain diseases?
herd immunity is when a proportion of the population is immune to a disease due to being immunized or having had the disease before and protects those who are not as it lowers the chance of disease being spread from person to person
-thresholds:
- rubella 83-85%
influenza - 80-90%
- mumps - 75-86%
measles - 83-94%
polio - 75- 86%
how is herd immunity lost?
when people do not get vaccinated or people move out of the place they have lived in long enough to create the herd immunization if they are not vaccinated
what are some structural failures of the ebola outbreak?
- lack of funding in the health care systems in Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia
-lack of sufficient epidemiological surveillance and contact tracing - lack of severity acknowledgement from local government and WHO
lack of resources (space for the infected to go, PPE) - traditional burial rituals that spread the disease increasingly
- cross border migration
What is HIV? when was it first recognized in the US? what was it caused by? what are the facts about HIV?
-HIV - Human Immuno Defiency Virus
- it was first recognized in the us in 1981
- it is caused by a retrovirus and attacks the immune system
- screening tests recognizes the antibodies
there are many drugs now available to treat it however there is no cure
How is HIV/ Aids transmitted?
- sexual contact
- sharing of needles:
- through intravenous drugs use, epically use of unsterile needles
- mother to infant ( vertical transmission) through:
prenatal or during birth, breastfeeding - blood transfusions: prevented through blood screenings
( circumcision helps protect men against contracting HIV from women but it does not prevent women contracting from men)
what are some examples of emerging diseases?
- ebola
- monkey pox
- west nile virus
- SARS and other corona viruses
- hantavirus
- other hemorrhagic viruses
what are some factors that lead to the emergence of new infectious disease:
- international travel
- modern agricultural practices
international distribution of food and exotic animals - increasing injection drug use and risky sexual behavior
All about infleunza
- RNA virus like HIV (genetic material of the virus is RNA not DNA)
- the virus is constantly mutating
- vaccine must be changed constantly
- new lethal strains appear periodically
- epidemic of 1918-1919 killed 20 million to 20 million worldwide
what are two types of influenza that are constant threats?
bird flu and H1N1
T o F: Both the inactivated and live attenuated (weakend) vaccine usually
made using egg-based manufacturing process
True
How many national influenza centers are there in 114 countries that conduct year round surveillance of infleunza?
144
which large international organization olds a meeting twice a year about which strain of influenza to include in a vaccine?
World Health Oragnization
What are some examples of new bacterial threats?
- Ecoli 0157:H7 in food
- lyme disease
- Group A streptococci
- Legionnares disease
- Antibacterial resistance
How does people obtain antibacterial resistance?
- improper medical use
- use in agriculture
-MRSA ( improper use of antibiotics cana lead to antibiotic resistant infections like MRSA)
T o F: Tuberulosis is the second leading cause of infectious disease death worldwide
False: it is the firs leading cause of infectious disease death world wide
what proportion of the world is infected with TB? who is at a higher risk of of getting TB?
1/3 & people with HIV
what is the fatality rate for untreated TB? how is TB transmitted? Are antibiotics effective in treating TB?
50% & it is transmitted through aerosols (droplets that hold on to the pathogen and linger in the air)
- Antibiotics are effective but must be taken for several months
when was there a resurgence of TB in the us?
in the early 1990’s
what is the risk of improperly using antibiotics with TB?
it can lead to antibiotic resistance and multi drug resistance as well as making the mortality rate exceed 50%
wat is the best approach for preventing antibiotic resistance?
directly observed therapy (patients have to take their medication under the surveillance of a medical professional)
what is the public health response to emerging infections?
- Global surveillance on human, domestic animal, and wildlife populations
- agency surveilllance
- institute of Medicine Recommendations:
( new vaccines, new anti microbial dugs, measures against vector based diseases, and banning use of antibiotics for growth promotion in animals)
what agencies are responsible to global surveillance of infectious disease?
- World Health Organization
- CDC - International Emerging Infections Program
- WHO for animal health
- Food and Agricultural Organization for the United Nations
how should public health address vaccine hesitancy? what is the most effective method to address this
carrot, sticks, and sermons
- carrots: prizes for doing th health behavior
- sticks: penal it for not doing the health behavior
- sermon: trying to persuade people to do the health behavior
for vaccinations carrots are the most effective but the others can als be used
what is the leading cause of death and disability in the us?
Chronic Disease,
what are the top two causes of death in the us?
cancer and heart disease
What does chronic disease impact? what are the causes of chronic disease?
- impacts the quality of life severely
- has multiple causes, risk factors are less recognizable
what is the two types of research done on chronic disease?
epidemiological research & Laboratory research
what two leading causes of death in the US does cardiovascular disease encompass?
heart disease and stroke
fill in the blank: ___________ is part of the development of cardiovascular disease
atherosclerosis (narrow and hardened arteries due to plaque build up)
what are the risk factors for cardiovascular disease:
- diet, high blood pressure, diabetes, and smoking all interact to cause injury of the artery walls
- cholesterol level - the lower the better
- (LDL - low is better , HDL- high is better )
- genetics
- exercise (lowers total cholesterol and increases HDL) (smoking decreases HDL)
- use of statins for secondary prevention is widespread
What are plays a role in high blood pressure? what are the ranges for health blood pressure and hypertension stage 1?
- obesity, smoking, stress, and salt
- health blood pressure less than 120/80
hypertension stage one is 130-139/80-89
T or F: secondary prevention is not effective for high blood pressure
false: it is effective
T or False Cancer is more difficult to understand than cardiovascular disease
True
how does cancer arise?
from mutations in DNA caused by chemicals,viruses,and radiation
what causes 1/3 of cancer deaths?
tobacco use
what is diabetes? is it a major cause of disability? what are the different types
deficiency in the ability to metabolize (break down) sugar
- yes diabetes is a major cause of disability
- type 1 diabetes: “childhood onset” - insulin production failure
-type 2 “ adult onset”- insulin resistance
which types of diabetes is risiing in prevelance i the us?
type 2 and it is closely correlated with obesity
what contributes to the seriousness of diabetes as a public health problem?
lack of access to routine medical care
what is a prominent psychological factor that affects our health? Provide examples
stress
- ex: mortalities (death) increases after death of a spouse,loss of a job, divorce, etc.
- ex: stress increases your risk of the common cold and heart disease
- more daily struggles with stress at lower SES
How long can post covid or Long covid conditions last?
they can last weeks, months, or longer
T or F; There are tests available to diagnose post covid conditions
False there are not tests
What are some symptoms of Long Covid?
- fever
- difficulty thinking or concentrating “brain fog”
- heart palpations
chest pains - coughing
-sleep problems - difficulty breathing
Define Teratogens
a substance or agent that causes birth defects
what are some examples of environmental teratogens and their effects?
- alcohol - fetal alcohol syndrome
- drugs: acutane, hormones, cocaine, heroin
- environmental chemicals: ( ex: Minimatas disease in japan due to mercury exposure in the water)
-infectious pathogens: congenital syphilis (syphilis passed to child during birth), rubella, toxoplasmosis
Fill in the blank: genetic materials for humans are located on ___ chromosomes
46
what are two types of genetic diseases (specifically chromosomal abnormalities)
trisomy 21 and down’s syndrome
what is the difference between autosomal dominant, x-linked, and autosomal recessive?
- autosomal dominant: affected person inherits one copy of gene (dominant allele) to express disease and then passes it to all of their children
- autosomal recessive: affected person needs to inherit two copies of a gene
- x - linked: passed on by mother and the disease occurs commonly in males (mother has two XX’s and a males needs one x (ether recessive or dominant) to inherit the disease
Can the severity of genetic conditions be influenced by environment?
yes it can (ex: taking folic acid can reduce the risk of spina bifida in a child)
what influences susceptibility to adulthood diseases?
Genes
are mental disorders genetic?
they are believed to be partially genetic
what two conditions are newborns screened for at birth? can early detection of these conditions prevent or reduce permenant damage?
- PKU and hypothyroidism
- the early detection of PKu and hypothyroidism can prevent or reduce damage
define genomics
how genes act in the body and how they interact with environmental influences to cause disease
what are the benefits of genomic medication?
earlier treatment and increased prevention
what is an example of how genomic medicine relates to cancer genes?
- studying someone’s genome and understanding if their body has barca 1 and brca 2 they are at a genetic predisposition for developing breast cancer.this puts people in a weird ethic dilemma beacause they do not know if finding out will
why is genetic counseling controversial?
because people believe that genetic abnormalities can be unethical to pass on and its kind of the practice of eugenics and choosing the most desirable genetics to pass onto a child
what is the difference between the leading cause of death and the actual leading cause of death?
-the leading cause of death is the diagnosis at the time of death
- the actual leadin cause fo death is the underlying causes of death / root causes
what is the leading cause of death a result of?
combination of external and genetic factors
T or F: the actual leading cause of death is not preventable is and is not the aim of public health interventions
false; the actual leading cause off death is preventable and is the aim of public health interventions
what are some examples of actual leading causes of death?
- tobacco use
- diet and physical activity
- microbial agents
- toxic agents
- motor vehicles
- fire arms
- sexual behavior
how many deaths are because of actual leading causes of death?
it accounts for almost 1/2 of all deaths
most actual leading causes of death are what?
- preventable
-premature
-caused by individual behavior
what is the #1 actual leading cause of death in the U.S?
tobacco
what does tobacco cause?
- cancer
- cardiovascular disease
-chronic obstructive lung disease - infant deaths due to low birth weight
- burns due to accidental fires
what is thee second most important actual leading cause of death?
physical inactivity and diet
poor diet and physical inactivity lead to?
- heart disease and stroke
- diabetes
- cancer
what does alcohol as an actual leading cause of death cause?
- motor vehicle fatalities
- drownings
- cirrhosis and chronic liver disease
-fire fatalities
-cancer
-job injuries - underage drinking
what is the fourth leading actual cause of death?
microbial agents
microbial agents were among the top ____ killers in the early 1900’s
three
T or F: microbial agents have been completely conquered and eradicated
false: they have been by no means conquered
which of the actual leading causes of death could be moved up further on the list in the future?
microbial agents
toxic agents are the ____ actual leading cause of death in the US
fifth
the fact that toxic agents are fifth on the list of actual leading causes of death is evidence of what?
successes in environmental health
what are the two approaches that the government has to regulate our health behavior?
regulation and education
is just education enough?
not always because people think they are exempt from health effects or do the health behavior anyways even with knowing the information or do not take the health information into consideration when making decisions
when is regulation warranted?
regulation is warranted when its intent is to restrain people from hurting others
what are some public health examples of regulation?
- traffic and seatbelt laws
- laws against murder and assault
- restrictions on alcohol, drugs, and tobacco
- laws requiring vaccinations
- laws to prevent minors from unhealthy behaviors
what is a famous example of regulation in us history? what was it effective in dong?
the eighteenth admendment (prohibition of alcohol)
- it was effective in reducing alcohol related diseases
why was the “war on drugs” to working?
- it is expensive: (having to pay officers to monitor and regulate drug use and well as court fees)
- it causes violence abroad: ( it causes people to do things illegally and under the table which is linked to violence0
- it sends thousands to prison
what is an important predictor of health?
socioeconomic status (SES)
SES is indicative of which three areas of life?
- income ( how much money you are bring in)
- education ( access to higher and better quality education is linked to better health outcomes)
- occupational status ( long term employment vs. short term employment)
health is affected by which other social factors?
race, gender, martial status, and ethnicity
T or F: Health disparities are a big concern of public health
true
why would socioeconomic status effect health:
it plays a role in our access to:
- proper nutrition
- sanitation
- conditions of the physical enivironment (if someone lives in an area near a park or if they don’t for example)
levels of health behavior
- medical care
what is an example of a stress buffer? (provide a specific example of the thing as well)
social support & the alameda study
what is the alameda study and how was it significant to public health
A study that analyzed the relationship between mortality, mental well being and physical health . the study found that when someone has strong social ties they live longer and have better mental health. helped solidly that social factors and lifestyle behaviors play a crucial role in determinants of health and longevity
what are ways that social support might protect health?
- having someone to talk to about the stresses of life and buffer against stress
- having supportive relationships can encourage healthy behvaiors and discourage risky health behaviors
- improved recovery when experiencing sickness because you have people there to cheer you up and support you through a stresss inducing time
which psychological model of health behavior is a classic frame of reference for understanding health behavior and especially behavior change.?
Health Belief Model
What are the components of the health belief model?
- perceived severity
- perceived susceptibility
perceived benefits - perceived barriers
what is self efficacy?
- the sense of having control over ones life
what is self effcaicy increased by?
- previous successful performance
- senothers sucewsduly perform, especially if the model is a peer
T or F: Self efficacy is a psychological model of health behavior
true
Has the Transtheorretical Model been widely useful in health education?
yes it has
what are the five stages of the Transtheoretical Model?
- pre contemplation
- contemplation
- preparation
- action
-maintenance
Which model describes five levels of influence that determine health related behavior?
Socio-ecological model of health behavior
what are the five components of the socioecological model of health behavior??
- intrapersonal (psychology)
- interpersonal (family, friends, coworkers)
- institution ( school, workplace)
- community ( churches, community organizations
-public policy (laws and regulations)
Fill n the blank: change the _____ is more effective than changing the ______ individual
environment, individual
where was changing the environment pioneered?
in injury control programs
wht type of specific programs is changing the environment effective in?
tobacco control programs because it addresses external influences that impact smoking behaviors
what is thee leading cause of disease and premature death in the united states
tobaccoa
T or False: tobacco is the single largest cause of preventable death
true
what are some examples of diseases caused by smoking?
- lung cancer
-heart disease - pneumonia
-emphysema
-diseases among infants
-burns
tobacco is native to which continents?
North and South America
Tobacco was important in early trading between who?
colonizers from europe and native americans
What was a main driver of the system of slavery in North America?
tobacco since it was a cash crop
Why would tobacco companies sent tobacco packs to WW1 and WW2 soldier?
to promote brand loyalty ad give them something to relax with hole in stressful times and build a association between cigarettes and relaxing
when did cigars become popular in the US?
in the 1800’s
T or F” the introduction of the cigarette rolling machine did not increase cigarette consumption because it became more expensive
False: The invention (1880) increased consumption because cigarettes become less expensive
which type of cigarettes were advertised to women?
Virginia Slims
What is nicotine? what classsiffication of drug is it?
colorless slightly yellow oily liquid that naturally occurs in tobacco and makes it highly addictive
- nicotine is classified as a stimulant
when chewed or dipped how and where is nicotine absorbed?
nicotine is absorbed through the mucus lining of the mouth
when smoke how and where is nicotine absorbed?
nicotine enters the lungs and then absorbed into the bloodstream
what does the amount of nicotine depend on
- volume of smoke inhaled
- the number of cigarettes smoked
- the density of the tobacco packed into the cigarette
- exact composition of tobacco
Since Nicotine is an addictive drug what effects does it have on the body?
- raising blood pressure and heart rate
- may cause spasms in blood vessels of the heart
What is tar?
the sticky black residue from burning tobacco that condenses in your lungs
what effect does tar have on your body?
- damages cilia and irritates the respiratory tract
t or f: tar is a major source of carcinogenicity
yes
what are other ingredients in cigarettes that are carcinogenic?
aresenic and benzene
what effect does carbon monoxide have on the body?
interferes with the oxyge carrying properties of the blood
what does smoking do to your blood cholesterol?
raises your cholesterol and reduces your HDL
what are Graphic Health Warning Labels? why does it not get used in the united states?
these warning labels use images of the effects of smoking on cigarette boxes
- these do not get used in the united states:
- because the tobacco company can say that this is restricting freedom of advertisement & most importantly the tobacco industry in the US is so powerful they will manipulate politicians who want to take action against companies by trying to pay them off
why are graphic health warning labels s effective??
because it take away the aesthetic factor of smoking and smoking with appealing boxes
Why do tobacco companies use the health belief model?
they use this model to influence people to purchase more of their products
what year did the attorney generals and the tobacco industry agree on a settlement?
1997-1998
what did the tobacco industry agree to in its settlement with the attorney generals?
- restrict advertising - no more marketing to kids
- pay 206 billion to 46 states over 25 years
- hand over document that show the effects of their products on health
T or F: tobacco companies use lifestyle branding to sell their products
true
fill in the blank: people who use tobacco are shon as _____, _______, & ______ but the ads never show the health effects from its use
young, attractive, and cool
who is the company marlboro advertised to?
white men
what type of cigarettes are advertised to black people?
menthols
How can public health address tobacco - related deaths?
- Taxes
- restrict visibilty of smoking
-restrict industry and advertising
what has tax done as a public health measure for smoking?
- teenagers are especially sensitive to the prices of cigarettes
- California has used cigarette taxes to fund tobacco control programs
- taxes are effective at reducing the number of smokers
what is the number one strategy to damage the tobacco industry?
put taxes on tobacco products
how many smokers per year must the tobacco industry recruit per year to replace those who have quit or died?
2 million
when do most smokers begin smoking>
most smokers begin smoking in their teens
T o F; Laws that prohibit the selling of tobacco to minors is effective
false; it is not effective
How has the tobacco industry and advertisement been restricted?
in 2009 the obama administration passed the Family smoking Prevention and Tobacco control Act and in 2010 phrases like “light”, “low”, or “mild” were prohibited since they imply less harm
what is the name of the act passed in 2009 by the obama administration to restrict the tobacco industry? what did it do?
Family Smoking
Prevention and Tobacco Control Act
-this act put age restriction on tobacco selling (must be 21)
- no flavors except for methanol)
- FDA now has some basic oversight
which country used ‘plain packaging” as an effective tobacco control tool? w
australia
what public health measures were enforced to restrict visibility of smoking? what does this protect people from?
- no smoking indoors due to clean indoor air laws
- this protects people from secondhand smoke
T or F: e- cigarettes are the safest alternative for cigarette use
false: it is till very high addictive, expensive, and bad for your health
injury is the ______ leading cause of death in the US for ages _____ to _____
fourth, 1-44
T or F; higher injury rates exist for group of lower SES
true
Define Unintentional Injury
injury, death, or harm that involves accidents committed without intent to harm, often a a result of circumstances or without premediation
T or F: non fatal injuries are the ones that are most reliably reported
false: fatal injuries are the ones that are ost reliably reported
many injuries are not ________
fatal
Define Intentional injury
injury, death, or psychological harm, maldevelopment or deprivation that involves the intentional use of physical force or power
what is the top three leading causes of injuries?
- poisoning
- motor vehicle injuries ‘
- firearms
motor vehicle fatalities decreased by more than _____ since 1968 despite more cares and more miles driven
40%
how many deaths per year are caused by motor vehicle injuries?
34,000
what is the third leading cause of injury death?
firearm injuries (almost 60% suicide, 37% homicides, often unintentional
why are firearms a public safety issue?
they cause high rates of mortality, can cause disability, disproportionately affect people of color creating a health disparity
T or F: innappropraite prescription of controlled substance is an issue
true
recent increases in positioning is large rely from use of what?
prescription pain reliever
american are how many times more likely to die from gun violence compared to peer nations?
25 times
Gun control legislation is strongly opposed by __________________ which has influence in _______________
th national rifle association, congress
what does OSHA stand for?
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
what is the leading cause of occupational injury death? what ar the most dangerous occupations?
motor vehicle injuries, lagging and fishing
what health model is sued to analyze ho the environment influences injuries?
Socioecological model
the public health approach to injury control analyzes in terms of chain of what? explain each piece of the chain and how it related to analyzing injuries?
causation
- Host: the person who inmates th3 even or who suffers form the injury
- agent: automobile, firearm, swimming pool, etc
-environment: road conditions, weather
what are prevention steps for motor vehicle crashes?
- speed limits, seatbelts
- graduated drivers licenses, zero tolerance for blood alcohol
what are the three E’s of prevention?
- education
- Enforcemet
-Engineering (how do we engineer safer products, roads, infrastructure?)
Prevention and injuries
- primary prevention: how do we create conditions that prevent injuries in the first place?
- secondary prevention: Ho can we reduce harm/prevent escalation of an injury when it does happen?
- tertiary: how do we improve treatment the injury? what can be done to minimize long term harm?
