Exam 2

Question 1

Basic principles of motor function (why do motivational neuroscientists study movement?)

Answer 1

Motivational neuroscientists study movement to understand how behavior is linked to motivation, emotion, and decision-making. Movement is a key component of how organisms interact with their environment, acquire resources, and respond to challenges. By studying movement, researchers can gain insights into neural mechanisms underlying behavior and motivation.

Question 2

Reflexive Movements (Different Kinds of Movements and the Order of Motor Control)

Answer 2

Involuntary, automatic responses to stimuli (e.g., withdrawal reflex).

Question 3

Voluntary (Different Kinds of Movements and the Order of Motor Control)

Answer 3

Conscious, planned actions (e.g., reaching for an object)

Question 4

Rhythmic (Different Kinds of Movements and the Order of Motor Control)

Answer 4

Repetitive actions (e.g., walking, running).

Question 5

Spinal Cord and lower motor neurons (Hierarchy of Movement)

Answer 5

The spinal cord contains lower motor neurons that directly innervate skeletal muscles, facilitating basic reflexes and movements.

Question 6

Brainstem and Cerebellum (Hierarchy of Movement)

Answer 6

The brainstem integrates sensory information and coordinates basic movements, while the cerebellum fine-tunes motor activity, balance, and timing.

Question 7

Basal Banglia (Hierarchy of Movement)

Answer 7

Basal Ganglia: Involved in action selection, sequencing of movements, and motivational aspects of movement. They help initiate and regulate voluntary motor activity.

Question 8

Cortical Region (Hierarchy of Movement)

Answer 8

Cortical Regions: The primary motor cortex initiates voluntary movements, while the premotor cortex is involved in planning and coordinating complex movements.

Question 9

Spinal Cord (Areas of the brain and movement)

Answer 9

Spinal Cord and Lower Motor Neurons: Responsible for reflex actions and transmitting signals to muscles.

Question 10

Cerebellum (areas of the brain and movement)

Answer 10

Cerebellum: Coordinates smooth and precise movements, motor learning, and timing.

Question 11

Brain stem (areas of the brain and movement)

Answer 11

Brainstem: Regulates basic bodily functions and integrates motor pathways.

Question 12

Basal ganglia (areas of the brain and movement)

Answer 12

Basal Ganglia: Facilitates the initiation and suppression of movements, essential for action planning and motivation.

Question 13

Cortical Regions (areas of the brain and movement)

Answer 13

Cortical Regions:
Primary Motor Cortex (M1): Directly controls voluntary movements.
Premotor Cortex: Involved in planning and executing movement sequences.

Question 14

Ethology and Movement

Answer 14

Ethology is the scientific study of animal behavior, focusing on how animals interact with their environments and the biological significance of their movements.

Definition and Areas of Study

Definition: Ethology examines behaviors in natural contexts, often focusing on instinctual and learned behaviors.

Areas of Study: Includes communication, foraging, mating behaviors, and territoriality, exploring how movement relates to survival and reproductive success.

Question 15

Types of Motor Patterns (Ethology)

Answer 15

Ethology looks at:

Fixed Action Patterns (FAPs): Stereotypical sequences of movements triggered by specific stimuli (e.g., courtship dances).
Learned behaviors: How animals adapt their movement based on experience.

Question 16

Types of Motor Patterns (Ethology)

Answer 16

Ethology looks at:

Fixed Action Patterns (FAPs): Stereotypical sequences of movements triggered by specific stimuli (e.g., courtship dances).
Learned behaviors: How animals adapt their movement based on experience.

Question 17

Experimental Work in Ethology

Answer 17

Research often involves:

Observational studies in natural settings to understand movement and behavior.
Controlled experiments to test hypotheses about movement patterns and their adaptive significance.

Question 18

Motivation

Answer 18

the processes that initiate, guide, and maintain goal-oriented behaviors. It involves the interplay of biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces.

Question 19

Key properties of MOTIVATION include:

Answer 19

Direction: The goal or outcome toward which behavior is directed.
Intensity: The energy and effort put forth in pursuing a goal.
Persistence: The duration of effort towards achieving a goal despite obstacles.

Question 20

Arousal Theory (Theories of Motivation)

Answer 20

Arousal Theory: Suggests that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, which varies by individual and situation.
Advantages: Explains behaviors beyond basic needs (e.g., thrill-seeking).
Disadvantages: Does not account for why some individuals seek low arousal.

Question 21

Instinct Theory (Theories of motivation)

Answer 21

Instinct Theory: Proposes that certain behaviors are innate and driven by biological instincts.
Advantages: Highlights the role of evolution in behavior.
Disadvantages: Lacks empirical support; oversimplifies complex behaviors.

Question 22

Drive/Homeostasis Theory (Theories of Motivation)

Answer 22

Drive/ Homeostasis Theory: Focuses on maintaining balance (homeostasis) within the body, suggesting that unmet biological needs create drives to restore balance.
Advantages: Explains physiological drives (e.g., hunger, thirst).
Disadvantages: Does not fully explain behaviors that are not directly linked to homeostatic needs.

Question 23

Incentive Theory (Theories of motivation)

Answer 23

Incentive Theory: Suggests that behavior is motivated by external rewards and incentives rather than internal drives alone.
Advantages: Accounts for the influence of external factors on behavior.
Disadvantages: May underestimate the role of intrinsic motivation.

Question 24

Homeostasis and Related Concepts

Answer 24

Homeostasis: The process by which biological systems maintain stability while adjusting to conditions that are optimal for survival.
Set Points vs. Settling Points:
Set Points: Predetermined levels of physiological variables (e.g., body temperature, weight).
Settling Points: More flexible, representing a range around which levels can fluctuate based on various factors, including environmental influences.

Question 25

Drive Reduction Theory

Answer 25

Hydraulic Model: Describes how unmet needs build up pressure (drive) until they are satisfied, which reduces tension and restores homeostasis.
Drives and Psychological Needs: Drives (e.g., hunger, thirst) arise from unmet physiological needs, while psychological needs (e.g., achievement, affiliation) can also motivate behavior.

Question 26

Intervening Variables and Central Motive States

Answer 26

Intervening Variables: Factors that influence the relationship between a stimulus and a response (e.g., cognitive appraisal).
Central Motive State: Refers to an internal state that drives behavior, integrating various needs and motivations.

Question 27

Biological Basis of Motivation

Answer 27

Research explores the neural mechanisms underlying motivation, examining how brain structures and neurochemicals regulate motivated behavior.

Question 28

Incentive Motivation Theory

Answer 28

Suggests that external rewards and incentives shape motivation. The anticipation of rewards influences behavior and can enhance motivation.
Expectations and Motivation: Individuals are motivated by the expected outcomes of their actions, which can influence their persistence and effort.

Question 29

Key Brain Regions Involved in Reward Processing

Answer 29

Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA): Critical for the release of dopamine, involved in reward anticipation.
Nucleus Accumbens: Plays a key role in the processing of rewards and reinforcement.
Prefrontal Cortex: Involved in decision-making and evaluating potential rewards.
Amygdala: Important for emotional responses related to rewards.
Wanting vs. Liking:
Wanting refers to the desire for a reward, often linked to dopamine activity.
Liking relates to the pleasure experienced when obtaining a reward, associated with other neurotransmitters (e.g., opioids).

Question 30

Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) (Reward processing)

Answer 30

Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA): Critical for the release of dopamine, involved in reward anticipation.

Question 31

Nucleus Accumbens (Reward processing)

Answer 31

Nucleus Accumbens: Plays a key role in the processing of rewards and reinforcement.

Question 32

Prefrontal Cortex (Reward Processing)

Answer 32

Prefrontal Cortex: Involved in decision-making and evaluating potential rewards.

Question 33

Amygdala (Reward Processing)

Answer 33

Amygdala: Important for emotional responses related to rewards.

Question 34

Homeostasis and Homeostatic Models

Answer 34

Homeostasis: The body’s ability to maintain stable internal conditions despite external changes.
Homeostatic Models: Frameworks that describe how physiological systems regulate variables (e.g., hunger, energy balance) to achieve stability.

Question 35

Glucostat and Lipostat

Answer 35

Glucostat: Mechanisms that regulate blood glucose levels. Signals like insulin and glucagon help maintain glucose homeostasis.
Lipostat: Mechanisms that monitor fat storage and regulate energy intake and expenditure, with leptin as a key hormone indicating fat levels.

Question 36

Appetite

Answer 36

The desire to eat, influenced by physiological, psychological, and environmental factors.

Question 37

Palatability and Taste

Answer 37

Palatability: The pleasantness of food, which influences appetite and food choices.
Taste: The sensory experience derived from the interaction of food with taste buds, affecting food preferences and intake.

Question 38

Satiety

Answer 38

The feeling of fullness that suppresses the desire to eat, often following a meal.

Question 39

Digestion

Answer 39

The process by which food is broken down into absorbable units, allowing nutrients to enter the bloodstream.

Question 40

Macronutrients

Answer 40

Fats (Lipids): Important for energy storage and cellular functions.
Amino Acids: Building blocks of proteins, essential for growth and repair.
Glucose: A primary energy source derived from carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches that provide energy.
Protein: Necessary for tissue repair and enzyme functions.

Question 41

Phases of Digestion

Answer 41

Cephalic Phase: Anticipatory response triggered by the sight, smell, or thought of food.
Gastric Phase: Digestion in the stomach involving mechanical and chemical breakdown.
Intestinal Phase: Digestion and absorption of nutrients in the small intestine.

Question 42

Key Factors Influencing Feeding (perspectives and clinical implications)

Answer 42

Physiological Signals: Hormones (e.g., ghrelin stimulates hunger, while leptin promotes satiety) and nutrient levels.
Environmental Cues: Availability of food, social contexts, and sensory stimuli can trigger eating behaviors.

Question 43

Hypothalamus and Feeding (perspectives and clinical implications)

Answer 43

Hypothalamus: A critical brain region in regulating hunger and satiety.
Subregions involved in feeding:
Lateral Hypothalamus: Stimulates hunger and feeding.
Ventromedial Hypothalamus: Promotes satiety and inhibits hunger.

Question 44

Eating Disorders and Hormones (perspectives and clinical implications)

Answer 44

Obesity: Characterized by excessive body fat; defined biologically by BMI and societally by stigma and health implications.
Neural Changes in Eating Disorders: Alterations in brain structure and function, particularly in reward pathways, decision-making areas, and homeostatic controls, can be seen in conditions like obesity.

Question 45

Biomedical-Based Treatments (perspectives and clinical implications)

Answer 45

Bariatric Surgery: Surgical procedures that reduce stomach size or alter the digestive tract to promote weight loss in obese individuals.
Hormonal Treatments: Use of hormones like GLP-1 or leptin to regulate appetite and metabolism.
Medications: Pharmacological approaches (e.g., appetite suppressants) to aid in weight management and treatment of eating disorders.

Question 46

Sexual Behavior

Answer 46

Definitions: Sexual behavior can be defined broadly as actions that promote reproduction, including mating, courtship, and various sexual activities. It can also be defined through biological, psychological, and social lenses.

Question 47

Measuring Sexual Behaviours

Answer 47

Measuring Sexual Behavior: In animal models, researchers often measure sexual behavior through:
Observational methods: Recording mating rituals and frequency.
Physiological measures: Monitoring hormone levels and physical responses (e.g., genital arousal).
Behavioral assays: Tests designed to assess sexual motivation and preference.

Question 48

Phases of Sex and Behavioral Order

Answer 48

Appetitive Phase: Preparation for sexual activity, including courtship and arousal.
Consummatory Phase: The act of sexual intercourse itself.
Post-Copulatory Phase: Behaviors following mating, such as bonding or caregiving.
The sequence of these phases is critical; disruptions can affect reproductive success and behavioral outcomes.

Question 49

Phases of Sex Motivation

Answer 49

Motivational Phases:
Initiation: Desire to engage in sexual activity.
Sustained Arousal: Maintenance of interest and physical arousal during sexual behavior.
Satisfaction: Completion and emotional response post-coitus.
These phases are interrelated; for example, effective initiation depends on prior arousal.

Question 50

Sexual Dimorphism (Biology of Sex: Dimorphisms and Brain Basis)

Answer 50

Sexual Dimorphism: Refers to differences between males and females in body size, shape, and behavior, often influenced by hormones.

Question 51

Brain Basis (Biology of sex: dimorphism and brain basis)

Answer 51

Certain brain regions exhibit sexual dimorphism, affecting behavior and motivation related to sex.

Question 52

Organizational vs. Activational Effects (Biology of Sex: Dimorphisms and Brain Basis)

Answer 52

Organizational Effects: Long-lasting changes that occur during critical periods of development (e.g., prenatal hormone exposure affecting brain structure).
Activational Effects: Immediate effects of hormones that influence behavior in adulthood (e.g., testosterone increasing sexual motivation).

Question 53

Brain Mechanisms of Sexual Behavior (hypothalamus & forebrain)

Answer 53

Hypothalamus: Plays a crucial role in regulating sexual behavior by integrating hormonal signals and controlling sexual motivation.
Forebrain Regions: Other areas, such as the amygdala and ventral striatum, are involved in processing emotional and reward aspects of sexual behavior.
These regions work together to coordinate appetitive behaviors (e.g., seeking out partners) and consummatory behaviors (e.g., engaging in copulation).

Question 54

Sexual Disorders and Holistic Treatments

Answer 54

Sexual Disorders: Conditions that impair sexual function or desire.

Holistic approaches consider psychological, relational, and biological factors in treatment.

Bottom-up treatments might include hormone therapy, psychotherapy, and addressing physical health to improve sexual function.

Question 55

Sexual Disorders and Holistic Treatments

Answer 55

Sexual Disorders: Conditions that impair sexual function or desire.

Holistic approaches consider psychological, relational, and biological factors in treatment.

Bottom-up treatments might include hormone therapy, psychotherapy, and addressing physical health to improve sexual function.

Question 56

Exceptional Human Sexual Development Cases

Answer 56

Turner Syndrome: A condition where females have a missing or incomplete X chromosome, leading to developmental issues and infertility.

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS): A condition where individuals with XY chromosomes develop female characteristics due to a lack of response to androgens. They typically have female genitalia but may lack a uterus.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH): A genetic disorder affecting adrenal hormone production, leading to increased androgen levels in females, which can cause ambiguous genitalia and other masculinizing traits.

Question 57

Insels Paper (summary)

Answer 57

Insel’s review emphasizes the importance of oxytocin and vasopressin in social behaviors, particularly maternal care and pair-bonding. The paper highlights both animal models and human research to illustrate how these hormones facilitate social connections and the complexities of human social behavior. The exploration of receptive and expressive processes, along with the concept of “dark matter,” suggests that understanding social neuroscience requires a deeper examination of the biological underpinnings of social interactions.

Question 58

Receptive vs. Expressive Processes (INSEL’S PAPER)

Answer 58

Receptive vs. Expressive Processes: Insel differentiates between receptive processes (how individuals receive social signals) and expressive processes (how individuals communicate and express emotions). He emphasizes that both processes are critical for understanding social behavior.

Question 59

Dark Matter of Social Science (INSEL’S PAPER)

Answer 59

This term refers to the underlying, often unmeasured biological mechanisms that contribute to social behavior but are not immediately observable. It suggests that there is much about the neurobiology of social interactions that remains unexplored or poorly understood, much like dark matter in physics.

Question 60

Maternal Care (Key Studies and Support for Oxytocin and Vasopressin) - Insel Paper

Answer 60

Animal Models: Studies have shown that oxytocin plays a critical role in maternal behaviors. For example, when researchers manipulate oxytocin levels in rodent models, they observe significant changes in maternal care behaviors, such as licking and grooming of pups.

Brain Manipulations: Lesion studies in the hypothalamus (where oxytocin is produced) reveal that disruptions in oxytocin signaling can lead to deficits in maternal behaviors, indicating its essential role in nurturing and bonding.

Question 61

Pair-Bonding and Affiliative Behaviour (Prairie Voles and humans)- Insel paper

Relates to Key Studies and Support for Oxytocin and Vasopressin

Answer 61

Prairie Vole Model: Prairie voles are well-studied for their monogamous pair-bonding behavior. Research has shown that oxytocin and vasopressin are crucial in forming and maintaining these bonds.
When prairie voles are given oxytocin or vasopressin, their affiliative behaviors (like grooming and cuddling) increase, enhancing pair-bond formation.
Conversely, blocking oxytocin receptors disrupts bonding and partner preference, demonstrating the hormone’s vital role.

Related Human Research: In humans, oxytocin has been linked to behaviors such as trust, empathy, and social bonding. Studies show that intranasal administration of oxytocin can enhance prosocial behaviors and increase feelings of closeness and trust in social interactions.

Question 62

Psychopharmacology in the Neuroscience of Motives and Emotions

Answer 62

Integration with Neuroscience: Psychopharmacology studies how drugs affect the brain and behavior, specifically in relation to motives (the drives behind actions) and emotions (the feelings that influence behavior). Understanding the neurochemical basis of these processes can illuminate how drugs can alter mood, motivation, and overall behavior.

Emotional and Motivational Pathways: Many drugs affect neurotransmitter systems that are crucial for regulating emotions and motivations, such as dopamine (reward and pleasure), serotonin (mood regulation), and norepinephrine (arousal and alertness).

Question 63

Basics of Pharmacology in Studying Drug Effects

Answer 63

Methods: Researchers use various methods to study drug effects on behavior, including:
Animal Models: Behavioral assays (e.g., operant conditioning tasks) assess the effects of drugs on motivation and behavior.
Clinical Trials: Controlled studies in humans to evaluate the efficacy and safety of medications.
Neuroimaging: Techniques like fMRI and PET scans help visualize brain activity and chemical changes in response to drugs.

Question 64

Drug/Medication Types and Their Effects

Answer 64

Categories:
Stimulants (e.g., cocaine, amphetamines): Increase alertness and energy, often enhancing dopamine activity. Can lead to tolerance and withdrawal symptoms such as fatigue and depression.

Depressants (e.g., alcohol, benzodiazepines): Decrease arousal and reduce anxiety. Tolerance can develop, and withdrawal may involve anxiety, tremors, and seizures.

Hallucinogens (e.g., LSD, psilocybin): Alter perception and mood without typical withdrawal symptoms but can cause psychological distress.

Opioids (e.g., heroin, morphine): Provide pain relief and euphoria. Highly addictive, with severe withdrawal symptoms including pain, nausea, and cravings.

Question 65

Tolerance and Withdrawal

Answer 65

Tolerance: A process where increasing amounts of a drug are needed to achieve the same effects due to the body’s adaptation to the drug.

Withdrawal: Symptoms that occur when a drug is reduced or discontinued, often opposite to the drug’s effects and can lead to cravings and relapse.

Question 66

Sensitization and Drug Addiction

Answer 66

Sensitization: Refers to an increased response to a drug following repeated use, often associated with the drug’s effects on motivational and reward pathways. This can enhance cravings and increase the likelihood of relapse.

Addiction: Characterized by compulsive drug-seeking behavior and use despite harmful consequences, often linked to neuroadaptations in reward pathways.

Question 67

Brain Model of Drug Addiction

Answer 67

Phases of Addiction: The model often includes three phases:

Binge/Intoxication Phase: Initial use characterized by the activation of the brain’s reward system (mainly involving dopamine).

Withdrawal/Negative Affect Phase: Withdrawal symptoms emerge, creating a cycle of negative emotions and cravings.

Preoccupation/Anticipation Phase: Intense cravings and planning for drug use, often influenced by environmental cues and memories.

Question 68

Treatment Approaches:

Answer 68

Pharmacotherapy: Medications (e.g., methadone for opioid addiction) that help manage withdrawal symptoms and reduce cravings.

Behavioral Therapies: Techniques that address the psychological aspects of addiction, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and contingency management.

Support Systems: Involvement of social support and rehabilitation programs to foster recovery and prevent relapse.

Question 69

Stomach Signals (levels of eating decisions)

Answer 69

The stomach plays a crucial role in signaling hunger and satiety. Stretch receptors in the stomach send signals to the brain when it is empty or full, influencing the decision to eat.

Question 70

Pancreas: Insulin and Glucagon (levels of eating decisions)

Answer 70

Insulin: A hormone released by the pancreas in response to increased blood glucose levels (usually after eating). It facilitates the uptake of glucose by cells and helps store excess energy as fat.

Glucagon: Released when blood glucose levels are low, it promotes the release of glucose from stored glycogen in the liver, increasing blood sugar levels.

Question 71

Duodenum (levels of eating decisions)

Answer 71

The first part of the small intestine, where food mixes with digestive enzymes. It also releases hormones that signal fullness, playing a key role in regulating appetite.

Question 72

Cholecystokinin (CCK) (levels of eating decisions)

Answer 72

A hormone released by the duodenum in response to fat and protein intake. CCK promotes satiety by slowing gastric emptying and sending signals to the brain to reduce hunger.

Question 73

Cholecystokinin (CCK) (levels of eating decisions)

Answer 73

A hormone released by the duodenum in response to fat and protein intake. CCK promotes satiety by slowing gastric emptying and sending signals to the brain to reduce hunger.

Question 74

Brain Regions Involved in Eating (levels of eating decisions)

Answer 74

Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH): Associated with satiety; lesions in this area can lead to overeating and obesity.

Lateral Hypothalamus (LH): Associated with hunger; lesions can result in reduced eating and weight loss.

Arcuate Nucleus: A key region in the hypothalamus that integrates signals related to energy balance, including those from leptin and ghrelin.

Paraventricular Nucleus (PVN): Involved in regulating energy expenditure and food intake; responds to various hormonal signals to influence appetite.

Question 75

Hormones Involved in Appetite Regulation

Answer 75

Insulin: Helps regulate blood sugar levels and signals satiety.

Glucagon: Counteracts insulin, increasing blood sugar when needed.

Leptin: Secreted by adipose (fat) tissue; signals to the brain about energy storage and helps regulate body weight. High levels typically suppress appetite.

Cholecystokinin (CCK): Signals fullness and aids in digestion.
Neuropeptide Y (NPY): A potent appetite stimulant produced in the brain, particularly during energy deficits.

Question 76

Sham Eating:

Answer 76

An experimental procedure where an animal is allowed to eat without the food being absorbed (e.g., food is removed before digestion). This helps researchers study the sensory and cognitive aspects of eating without physiological feedback.

Question 77

Sensory Specific Satiety:

Answer 77

The phenomenon where the desire to eat specific foods decreases after consumption, leading to a preference for different foods. This helps promote dietary variety and encourages continued eating.