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Animal Nutrition > EXAM 2 > Flashcards

EXAM 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 6 major classes of nutrients and which ones are important sources of energy?

A
  1. water
  2. vitamins
  3. minerals
    Important energy sources:
  4. proteins (1st source)
  5. carbohydrates (2nd source)
  6. lipids/fats (3rd source)
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2
Q

What are the 3 primary functions of nutrients?

A
  1. provide energy
  2. synthesize tissue constituents
  3. serve as cofactors in metabolic reactions
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3
Q

What is metabolic turnover? Which nutrient function does it fall under?

A

a. metabolic turnover is the constant breaking off and rebuilding of body tissue
- the synthesized product is either deposited into a tissue or cell, or degraded back to its constituent part that can be used to provide energy or perform synthesis again
b. synthesize tissue constituents

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4
Q

General concept for feeding an animal based on production and physiological states.

A

nutrient measurement method depends on the nutrient, but typically involves either production or balance trial
- production trial: feed different groups feeds w/ increasing amount of a nutrient and see where production plateaus
- balance trial: directly measures how much a nutrient is retained by the animal
- insufficient energy results in inability to utilize nutrients efficiently
(side note: certain AAs can be made by the body, so if a diet is deficient in them, the body is making up the difference, and there is no deficiency symptoms)

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5
Q

Why is water so important?

A

has a variety of specific properties that are critical to the normal functioning of the body:
- solvent and ionizing powers which are ideal for the dispersal of organic and inorganic molecules, and help to facilitate cell reactions
- high specific heat (can absorb metabolic heat and help the body regulate internal temp)
- influences pulmonary function (surface tension of water reduces evaporation from liquid-air interface)

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6
Q

Why might the body distribution of water vary?

A

total body water content is inversely related to body fat content (more body fat = less water); water content of lean
body tissues is relatively constant, between 70 and 75%

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7
Q

What are the factors for water requirements?

A
  1. environment temp. (hotter temp. = more water needed)
  2. feed quantity (more intake = more water)
  3. feed quality (dry feed = more water to help w/ digestion)
  4. physiological state (lactation = more water)
  5. age (younger animal, on BW basis, = more water)
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8
Q

What are the different sources that an animal can obtain water?

A
  • free drinking water (lakes, ponds, etc.)
  • through feeds low in DM (decreases free-water intake)
  • metabolic water (produced when nutrient are oxidized to make energy; lipids produce the most water, 16 mols)
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9
Q

How can an animal lose water?

A
  1. feces (dependent on water and DM intake, feed fiber content, and genotype (wet feces (pig) vs. dry/pelleted (sheep)
  2. urine (affected by outside temp., digestible DM and nitrogen intake, metabolism, and excretion; more ingested protein = more urination)
  3. evaporation (sweating/panting)
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10
Q

What are the 4 main types of works?

A
  1. chemical (ATP production)
  2. electric (neural activity)
  3. mechanical (muscle contraction)
  4. osmotic (Na+/K+ pump)
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11
Q

What is the importance of ATP and its role in oxidative phosphylation?

A
  • ATP is the most important energy carrier within cells
  • know oxidative phosphorylation (slide 7) (produced large amount of ATP)
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12
Q

What is the difference between indirect and direct calorimetry? Which is more commonly used in animals and why?

A

a. direct calorimetry requires a calorimeter that measures the heat generated by an organism (animal must be inside for a while; need ways of O2 entry and CO2 removal)
b. indirect calorimetry uses the amount of O2 an animal consumes to estimate heat production
- used on animals because less complex and expensive

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13
Q

What are the different components of “partitioning of feed energy”?

A
  1. GE (gross energy)- determined by placing the feed in a bomb calorimeter and combusting it (no animal can extract 100% of feed energy; due to a combination of its digestive system, and the chemical and physical structure of the feed components)
  2. FE (fecal energy)- indigestible feed that leaves the body as feces
  3. ME (metabolizable energy)- available for metabolism by the cells
  4. NE (net energy)- energy available to the animal to use after ME is lost as the HIF (heat given off by the consumption and processing of feed)
  5. RE (retained energy)- think growing animal (retained for new tissue)
    know flow chart on slide 16)
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14
Q

What are the general classifications for CHO?

A
  1. simple: monosaccharide (fructose, glucose, galactose) and disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose)
  2. complex: polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, lignin, pectin, glycogen)
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15
Q

What is glycolysis?

A

series of 10 successive reactions that result in the breakdown of glucose and leads to the formation of pyruvate which is a 3-carbon compound; every mole of glucose yields 2 moles of pyruvate
simple: breaking down of glucose to provide the cell with energy (ATP)

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16
Q

What are the different fates for the end product of glycolysis?

A
  1. anaerobic: pyruvate converted into lactate nets 2 moles of ATP per mole of glucose (4 moles of ATP are produced but 2 moles are used to fuel the reaction)
  2. aerobic: pyruvate is completely oxidized to CO2 and H2O after going through the Kreb (TCA) cycle and oxidative phosphorylation; nets 36 moles of ATP per mole of glucose
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17
Q

What is glycogen and where is it stored?

A
  • glycogen is the storage of glucose and is a branched polysaccharide consisting of glucose subunits
  • stored in the liver (can release free glucose into the blood) and skeletal muscle (used within the tissue)
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18
Q

Understand the process of glycogenolysis.

A

slide 11

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19
Q

Tissue metabolism of glucose in the brain, skeletal muscle, liver

A
  • brain: slide 14
  • skeletal muscle: slide 15
  • liver: slide 16
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20
Q

What are the 3 major sources of blood glucose that are used by all animals?

A
  1. CHO: via diet; digested in the small intestine and glucose is absorbed across the intestinal epithelium entering the blood
  2. breakdown of glycogen (hepatic glycogenolysis): only the liver can mobilize glycogen all the way to free glucose
  3. gluconeogenesis: production of glucose from non hexose precursors; primarily within liver and kidneys; ruminants always use this to maintain blood glucose
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21
Q

Differences between gluconeogenesis between the non-ruminant and ruminant.

A
  • non-ruminant: when absorption is high, gluconeogenesis is low (glucose does not need to be made if plenty is coming in through the diet)
  • ruminant: provides all or most of the glucose all the time; rate is always high and will increase after eating (main precursor = propionic acid (VFA) which will be available in high concentrations when the microbes are fermenting feed); after eating glycerol, lactate, and AAs are used for gluconeogenesis
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22
Q

What is the significance of the Cori cycle?

A
  • lactate is converted to glucose
    • lactate produced in the muscle is removed by the blood and taken to the liver and turned back into glucose
      reptiles do NOT have a Cori cycle
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23
Q

What are the 3 VFAs?

A
  1. acetic acid or acetates (CH3COOH)
  2. propionic acid or propionate (CH3CH2COOH)
  3. butyric acid or butyrate (CH3CH2CH2COOH)
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24
Q

What are the main factors that affect ruminal absorption?

A
  1. concentration of VFA (and ruminal acids) in the rumen fluid (higher concentration = more absorption)
  2. rumen pH (lower pH = more absorption)
  3. C-chain length (chain length increase = more absorption)
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25
Q

What are the roles of the portal vein and liver in postabsorptive metabolism?

A

Portal vein: neutralizes VFAs to their anionic form (acetate, propionate, butyrate), and carries them directly to the liver to be metabolized
Liver:
- has little capacity for acetate, so it passes through into peripheral blood, unchanged
- more than 90% of propionate is extracted by the liver and used mainly for glucose synthesis, with a small amount of CO2 produced
- more than 90% of the butyrate is also extracted and converted to 3-hydroxybutyrate

26
Q

How are acetate and acetyl CoA interrelated, and what are some of the main factors of tissue uptake of acetate?

A

a. acetate must be activated to acetyl coA before it can be further metabolized
b. tissue uptake of acetate rate is directly related to rate of rumen fermentation
- occurs via passive diffusion, and determined by arterial concentration (amount of acetate taken up by skeletal muscle is dependent on acetate concentration in the arterial blood “feeding that muscle)
- arterial concentration of acetate is determined by the rate of absorption of acetate across the rumen papillae and into the portal blood
- rate of absorption across the rumen papillae is determined by ruminal production and rumen fluid concentration
slide 12 has full summary

27
Q

Do non-ruminants utilize VFAs? If so, how?

A

yes, VFAs are absorbed by the colonic mucosa
- mucosa extracts some of the VFAs for their metabolic needs prior to passing the remainder into the portal blood
(rest of hepatic and post-hepatic metabolism is similar to ruminants)
- propionate that is produced by fermentation will be converted to glucose in the liver and used by the body (this glucose quantity is small compared to glucose directly absorbed by the SI)

28
Q

What is the basic structure of lipids? What is the difference between fat and oil, and saturated vs. unsaturated?

A

a. glycerol (backbone) + fatty acids = triglyceride
b. fats: generally animal origin, high melting points, solids at room temp., high percent of saturated fatty acids
oils: generally, plant origin, low melting points, liquids at room temp., fatty acids that contain a high percentage of unsaturated fatty acids
c. saturated: ex. butter/lard (animal) and palm oil (plant)
- all C surrounded by H (hydrogenated; creates longer shelf life because of harder oxidation)
- no double bonds
- solid/firm at room temp.
unsaturated: ex. canola/olive oil (monounsaturated) and soybean/sunflower oil (polysaturated)
- have at least one double bond
- omegas/good fats (nuts, liver, avocados) provide proper immune function, cardiovascular and reproductive function

29
Q

What are micelles and chylomicrons? How are they the same and how are they different?

A

micelles: water soluble lipid droplets formed by bile salts
- transport the poorly soluble monoglycerides and FAs to the surface of the enterocytes where they can be absorbed
chylomicrons: lipid droplet that buds off after enclosing the new triglyceride in the ER
- lipoproteins that transport lipids into the circulation (capillaries (lacteals) -> lymph -> portal vein)
look through slides 10-12

30
Q

What is the function of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and what broad role does it play in lipid biochemistry?

A

a. LPL is an enzyme found in capillary endothelial cells that hydrolyzes the triglycerides into chylomicrons and other lipoproteins
- cleaves the fatty acids from the glycerol backbone so it can be absorbed into the cell
glycerol stays in circulation, goes back to the liver where its converted into glucose via gluconeogenesis

31
Q

What is the process of beta oxidation?

A
  • fatty acids are broken down and used for energy
  • happens in the mitochondria
  • stage 1: activation and cleavage of the last 2 C in the chain, producing acetyl coA
  • stage 2: acetyl coA enters TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation
32
Q

What is re-esterification?

A

chemical reaction re-forms the triglyceride by binding the fatty acids to glycerol
- form of lipid synthesis

33
Q

What is lipolysis?

A

process of breaking down the triglyceride, that is stored in adipose tissue, by hormone sensitive lipase (HSL)
- the cell that needs energy signals the sympathetic NS, which releases norepinephrine
- norepinephrine binds to a receptor on the adipocyte cell membrane, activating cAMP, which activates HSL

34
Q

What is the process of fatty acid mobilization of NEFAs?

A

FAs and glycerol are released from adipose tissue into the blood -> glycerol goes to liver and becomes glucose -> FAs become non-esterified FAs (found circulating in the plasma attached to albumin) -> NEFAs are transported to the tissue that needs energy so it an enter the cells and undergo B-oxidation

35
Q

What is ketosis and what are some scenarios where an animal might develop this condition?

A

a. When the body doesn’t have enough carbs from food for the cells to burn for energy, it burns fat instead and ketones are formed (normal metabolic process)
b. ketoacidosis can be developed from:
- diabetic cats that are hard to regulate on insulin
- ewe carrying twins or triplets (fetus’ mobilize various energy sources to meet their growth needs)
- dairy cow in early lactation enters a state of negative energy balance (large amounts of adipose tissue must be mobilized to meet energy needs; feeding many nutrients prevents too far of a negative energy balance)

36
Q

Protein function, excess and deficiency, and physical and chemical structures.

A

a. - provides amino acids
- used to increase muscle mass
- important for lactating mares
and young growing foals
- provides some energy (expensive)
b. excess signs: increased water intake and urination
deficiency signs: reduced growth/weight loss, reduced milk production and performance, and rough/coarse hair
c. physical amino acids are the building blocks, linked by peptide bonds
chemical; contain a R-group (differ for every AA), carboxyl group (acid), and amino group (base)

37
Q

Differences between essential vs. non-essential AAs, and degradable vs. undegradable proteins.

A

a. essential: get from diet (remember PVT TIM HALL)
non-essential: made in the body (some non- can become essential during high levels of production, particularly pregnancy)
b. degradable: protein that is available for degradation by the rumen microbes
undegradable: protein that bypasses rumen degradation and goes straight to the abomasum

38
Q

Explain protein catabolism, and the oxidative deamination processes.

A

a. protein is digested into small peptides and FAAs
b. once proteins are absorbed across the SI and into the epithelial cell, 2 things occur:
1. deamination (removal of the amine group and conversion to ammonia)
2. deaminated AA is now a keto acid, which enters the TCA cycle
- keto acid doesn’t have to become glucose, can be oxidized to produce ATP

38
Q

What is biological value (BV)?

A

measure of the absorbed protein from a food and how those proteins are available to the animal

39
Q

What is non-protein nitrogen (NPN) and why is it important to ruminants?

A

a. NPN ex.: ammonia and urea (used to increase total nitrogen in the diet)
b. - used by the rumen microbes and turned into microbial protein (NPN is used by the microbes before it can be absorbed and enter the blood)
non-ruminants CANNOT get fed NPN because it will get absorbed in the SI, not reaching the cecal/colon microbes; too much NPN in the blood can lead to ammonia toxicity and death

39
Q

What are the 3 factors that affect amino acid availability?

A

1.dietary protein intake/amount of protein consumed
2. AA composition of the protein being eaten (only 100% for non-ruminants)
3. metabolism of the splanchnic tissues, particularly the gut and liver

39
Q

Why is the liver important for protein interactions?

A
  • synthesizes many proteins in large quantities and very rapidly
  • ite where nonessential AAs are produced
39
Q

What is transamination and process coupling?

A

a. way for the body to try and
meet its exact AA needs even though the diet has not provided exactly the right ones
- amine group is transferred from one amino group to a keto acid, producing a new AA
- converts essential AA into nonessential
- conversion between nonessential AAs, also
lots of transamination occurring in animals w/ primarily plant protein diet
b. catabolism and oxidative deamination are often “coupled” within the liver

40
Q

Why is protein synthesis and deposition important?

A

synthesis must exceed degradation for there to be net protein deposition into muscle (in a growing animal) or net protein secretion into milk (in a lactating animal)

41
Q

How do proteins affect feed efficiency?

A

protein intake and deposition
increase, feed efficiency decreases
- smaller the feed to gain ratio is better,
because the gain is costing less
- protein deposition and feed efficiency plateau at the same point

42
Q

What are the protein needs of ruminants?

A

assumed to be met when the dietary degradable protein (DIP) meets the needs of the microbes and some dietary protein escapes rumen fermentation (undegraded intake protein; UIP) to provide additional amino acids for the needs of protein deposition
must be provided with sufficient energy to utilized the dietary protein or protein deposition will be limited

43
Q

What are the characteristics of vitamins?

A
  • fat- (ADEK), and water- (BC) soluble
  • organic compounds that animals require in very small amounts
  • not metabolic fuels or structural nutrients
  • fat-soluble vitamins must be consumed in the diet
  • most mammals can synthesize vitamin C, except for primates/humans who have to get it through diet
  • B vitamins cannot be synthesized by mammals, but are synthesized by the fermenting microbes
  • pro-vitamins are chemically changed into a vitamin by the body
44
Q

What are the factors affecting the bioavailability of vitamins?

A
  1. amount of a vitamin in feed/food
  2. fat-soluble are generally less bioavailable than water-
  3. vitamins from plant food are less bioavailable than animal
  4. amount absorbed and utilized (digestion efficiency, previous nutrient intake, etc.)
45
Q

What are the 4 fat soluble vitamins?

A
  1. A: main storage site is the liver; retinol
  2. D: “sunshine vitamin”
  3. E: alpha tocopherol; powerful antioxidant
  4. K: (group of compounds found in 3 forms) K1 is a natural plant based form; K2 found in meat and dairy products (product of the bacterial flora in the GI tract); K3 is the synthetic form (widely used in commercial products)
46
Q

What does the term anti-oxidant mean, and which vitamins are antioxidants?

A

a. substances that protect cells from damage from free radicals
b. ACE??

47
Q

What are the general characteristics of water-soluble vitamins, and their metabolism?

A

a. found in water portions of food
b. absorbed directly into the blood with water, they travel freely.
- for storage, circulate freely in water filled parts of the body (don’t require a carrier)
- kidneys remove excess in urine

48
Q

What are the 4 B vitamins?

A
  1. pantothenic acid is part of the CoA molecule
  2. riboflavin is required for FAD
  3. niacin is required for NAD
  4. thiamin is required for synthesis of
    thiamin pyrophosphate (part of PDH)
    all facilitators in metabolism
49
Q

What are the characteristics of minerals?

A
  • inorganic compounds required in very small amounts (don’t contain C)
  • needs are based on: physiological state, level of production, and amount stored within tissues
  • bioavailability varies between minerals and species
  • toxicity can occur if consumption exceeds the minerals optimal range
50
Q

What is the difference between micro and macro minerals?

A

microminerals: iron, zinc, copper, manganese, iodine, selenium
- minerals required in small amounts in the body
macrominerals: calcium, magnesium, sulfur, chloride, potassium
- minerals required in large amounts in the body

51
Q

What are the functions and sources of calcium and phosphorus?

A

calcium: a. needed for all physiological functioning to take place such as regulating constriction and relaxation of blood vessels, nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction
- helps with bone remodeling that synthesizes new bone to replace bone that was resorbed
- significant in the secretion of hormones such as insulin
b. dairy products, and high calcium plants (kale, broccoli, cabbage)
phosphorus: a. serves as a buffer (helps maintain the pH of a system)
- DNA and RNA are long chains of phosphate containing molecules
- component of ADP and ATP that helps carry and release energy
foods high in calcium, also high in phosphorus (dairy, beens, fish, whole grain cereal)

52
Q

What is Milk Fever?

A
  • low blood calcium
  • usually occurs within a few days of calving since the onset of lactation causes a massive drain on the extracellular calcium
  • injects can be given early on to help maintain blood calcium levels until her body can regulate itself
    best preventative diet is one that is slightly low in calcium during the last two weeks prior to calving (cow has already upregulated PTH and Vitamin D3 production and she is making plenty of calcium binding protein)
53
Q

What are the three major electrolytes and how do they interact?

A

a. sodium, chloride, and potassium
b. - sodium works hand and hand with potassium to maintain concentration and pH balance of intra- and extracellular fluid (membrane potential)
- chloride maintains osmotic and acid-base balance, and formation of gastric HCl
- potassium acts as a buffer constituent, important in acid-base balance regulation, water balance, membrane transport, effects neuromuscular activity, and important for maintaining bone health

54
Q

What is white muscle disease? How does it develop? How would you treat it?

A

a. aka nutritional muscular dystrophy, is the most common disease caused by a lack of selenium and/or Vitamin E
b. diagnosed in all the livestock species and in several exotic ruminants fed deficient forages
c. supplementing Selenium or vitamin E (vitamin E is safer because it has a wider margin of safety)

55
Q

General characteristics of iron.

A
  • essential component of hundreds of proteins and enzymes
  • required for growth, reproduction, healing and immune function
  • good food sources for iron: meat, fish,
    poultry, plants, dairy products
  • without iron, the hemoglobin molecule cannot function to transport oxygen (at the center of the heme molecule is a single iron atom)
56
Q

General characteristics of iodine.

A
  • required by animals for the synthesis of thyroid hormones
  • sources of iodine: salt (iodized), cod, milk, turkey breast and canned tuna in oil
    4 iodine atoms in one molecule of thyroxine (T4)
57
Q

General characteristics of selenium.

A
  • helps to boost the immune system
  • found in many meat, seafood, grain, and SOIL
    Selenium and Manganese were the acknowledged mineral antioxidants
    Selenium and Vitamin E have similar function, so supplementing one will alleviate deficiency symptoms of the other

Animal Nutrition (3 decks)

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