exam 2 Flashcards
cardiorespiratory fitness terminology
aerobic exercise- endurance
anaerobic exercise- power/energy burst
anaerobic power- rate at which the body can meet energy demands
anaerobic capacity- maximun oxygen deficit
aerobic power- rate which long-term oxygen demand is met
aerobic capacity- total energy available for prolonged activity
peak oxygen uptake
highest rate oxygen can be consumed by the muscles during aerobic work.
limiting factor to continued vigorous activity: heart’s ability to pump enough blood to meet the oxygen needs of the working muscles.
related to lean body mass
increases linearly from childhood to adulthood
aerobic energy system – physiological response, changes in performance for children and adults, assessment and measurement, and training adaptations
breakdown of food stores, slow depletion of energy reserves
children- small SV and CO, compensate with higher HR, lower concentration of hemoglobin
adults- average maximal oxygen uptake per kilogram of body weight falls about 1% per year after the 20s. active have higher capacity and power than a sedentary person
assessment- maximal or sub maximal exercise, measured by oxygen and metabolic processes
anaerobic energy systems – physiological response, changes in performance for
children and adults, assessment and measurement, and training adaptations
oxygen and energy stores depleted
related to body size, ability to metabolize fuel, oxygen delivery systems
children- training- children have high power output and mean power, opposite for children that do not train
adults- anaerobic performance is stable until older adulthood when it declines due to loss of muscle mass and type II muscle fibres
assessing- power output is measured from 10-30 second outbursts of energy
changes with training
Peak oxygen uptake is higher in those who train.
Declines are not as dramatic in adults that remain active.
Sedentary adults who begin training can increase maximal (peak) oxygen uptake.
Muscle mass increases with training. Training adults have a larger vital capacity.
definition of muscular strength – how is it assessed?
muscular strength is the ability to exert force
it is assessed: isotonic tests use 1-repetition maximum.
isometric ( tests use a dynamometer or cable tensiometer.
Functional strength tests include chin-ups, flexed- arm hang, and rope climbing.
different types of muscle contraction and how adaptation occurs
isometric
isotonic
concentric
eccentric
developmental changes in strength from childhood through to older adulthood
strength increases as children grow.
boys and girls are similar until age 13
endocrine function influences strength
Neural factors likely exert influence (including improved motor unit activation with maturation).
Males add more muscle mass in adolescence.
Males are generally stronger, especially in the arms and shoulders.
Size does not account for all gender differences. Cultural norms can affect motivation and can affect habitual activity levels.
After growth ceases, increases in muscle mass are associated with resistance training.
strength usually decreases after 30
Loss of strength may be greater than loss of muscle mass (possibly due to changes in fiber types, nervous system, vascular system).
Muscular coordination factors might be involved in declining strength.
Loss of strength is greatly affected by exercise and activity levels.
strength training principles from childhood through to older adulthood
Prepubescents can increase strength with training.
Improved neuromuscular coordination plays a role.
Youths should be monitored to avoid injuries.
Adolescents and adults can increase strength and muscle mass with appropriate resistance training.
Muscle mass can be increased with training over time.
Those with cardiovascular disease should be monitored.
Define flexibility and how it can be assessed and developmental changes in flexibility
Flexibility is the ability to move joints through a full range of motion.
Limited flexibility can be a factor in injury. Flexibility is specific to each joint.
assessment: Because flexibility is joint specific, it must be measured for each joint assessed.
A goniometer is often used.
The sit-and-reach test
development: Infants and toddlers are very flexible, but studies show that declines in flexibility can start in childhood.
Flexible people can maintain or improve levels.
Girls as a group are more flexible than boys.
In adolescence, flexibility is variable; some people lose a significant degree.
Adults gradually lose flexibility, especially in little- used joints and after age 50.
Adults who maintain training for flexibility maintain their levels.
body composition (2 compartment model) and its importance
Body mass can be divided into two types of tissue: lean tissue (which includes muscle, bone, and organs) and fat, or adipose, tissue.
The relative percentages of fat-free and fat tissues make up body composition.
importance: Body composition determines appearance.
It affects self-concept.
It is related to working capacity.
Excess weight adds to workload.
Excess fat limits range of motion.
Obesity places one at risk of diseases.
Identify factors affecting body composition
age, gender, environmental factors
manipulated factors: diet and exercise
obesity and how exercise can reduce complications
an overfat condition that has many his factors and diseases associated with it.
Rapid increase implicates environmental rather than genetic factors.
People are less active.
Diets have increased in fat and sugar.
Exercise can offset the decrease in basal metabolic rate that accompanies caloric restriction.
Exercise promotes development of muscle tissue, which requires more calories for maintenance.
Exercise expends calories.
health risks associated with obesity
Cardiovascular Disease
Type 2 Diabetes
Hypertension
Dyslipidemia
Ischemic Stroke
Sleep Apnea
Degenerative Joint Disease
Some types of Cancer
Gallstones
difference between sensation and perception
Sensation is the neural activity triggered by a stimulus activating a sensory receptor.
Sensory nerve impulses travel sensory nerve pathways to the brain.
Visual
Auditory
Kinesthetic
Perception is a multistage process in the central nervous system.
It includes selection, processing, organization, and integration of information received from the senses.
Identical sensations can yield different perceptions.- things like taste and food textures
acuity, presbyopia, signs and symptoms that may indicate a visual problem
acuity- Acuity is sharpness of sight.
presbyopia- Presbyopia affects ability to see nearby images (can be corrected with lenses).
major aspects of visual perception – space, objects and motion
Space
Requires perception of depth and distance
Objects
Object attributes are size, shape and motion
Perception is based on edges and boundaries
Shape and orientation (object recognized even if its orientation changes)
Movement
Infants perceive motion
Perception of direction and velocity of motion improves during infancy
kinesthetic perception concepts – proprioception, tactile localization and body awareness
Kinesthesis arises from proprioceptors. There are two types of proprioceptors:
Somatosensors
Muscle spindles have a major role in position and movement sense. Skin receptors have a secondary role.
Vestibular apparatus
Receptors probably function prenatally.
Newborns respond to touch and can locate touches to the face. The vestibular apparatus functions by age 2 months, if not earlier.
Some sensitivity may be lost.
Proprioceptive acuity declines.
Impairments in lower limbs might play a role in loss of balance.
laterality and lateral dominance
Laterality involves knowing the sides of the body are distinct:
Children show adultlike responses by age 10 years. Labeling left and right improves in late childhood.
Lateral Dominance (preferring one eye, ear, hand, or foot over the other)
Infants show preferences.
Handedness is established around age 4 years.
No evidence that pure dominance is necessary or advantageous.
auditory perception concepts – presbycusis, absolute vs differential threshold, patterns
Hearing loss (presbycusis) is more frequent in older adults.
Some loss might have a physiological source.
Some loss might result from lifelong exposure to environmental noise.
Three properties give rise to patterns:
Time
Intensity
Frequency
absolute vs. differential threshold????
Define and explain intermodal perception
Events are perceived through various modalities.
Two perspectives exist:
1. Infants must learn how unique sensations from different modalities are related to one another.
2. Infants must learn about the world from unified information coming through different modalities.
Amodal invariants are patterns in space or time that do not differ across modalities.
AUDITORY-VISUAL
Newborns turn toward a sound and demonstrate a basic level of integration early in the first year.
VISUAL-KINESTHETIC
Infants seem to relate objects they can see to objects they have mouthed.
AUDITORY-KINESTHETIC
Brain scanning indicates even 7–8-month-olds integrate audio and tactile.
Review motivation to participate – why individuals persist (what tools can we use to encourage) or drop out (what barriers exist for these individuals)
motivation to participate is related to external and internal factors
many children will participate because of their peers, parents, interests. these are the same things that cause dropout.
for adults and teens it is dependent on skill, perceived skill, and external influences such as environment, accessibility and so on
seniors activities are dependent on social environments, skills that are low impact and so on, drop out is dependent on accessibility and mobility and so on
the role of action in perception – compare/contrast historical views vs
contemporary views
Developmental systems are interrelated.
Developmentalists suspect that movement is important to perceptual development.
Movement is necessary for the coupling and tuning of perception and movement.
historical: Some experts believed that understanding things (perception) comes before moving and thinking (cognition). They thought special programs could help kids who struggle with learning. But when they looked into it, they found they didn’t test these programs very well at first.
contemporary: Perceptual-motor activities are crucial for kids, integrating senses and movement to enhance learning. They reinforce concepts and promote cognitive and motor development. Research suggests that exercise boosts brain proteins, and thinking and movement are closely linked in the brain. Studies show a positive relationship between physical activity and cognitive functioning. Ecological views highlight that children perceive their environment before acting. However, more research is needed on perception-action loops guiding movement.
spatial perception and affordances
Ecological view: It is the affordance that is perceived.
Affordances involve what the environment permits, given the capabilities of the performer.
They are perceived directly, without cognitive analysis of object characteristics.
Explain how movement facilitates perceptual development
Deprivation can put people at risk of deficient perceptual development.
Movement experience might influence survival of synaptic connections in early development.
postural control and balance – how does it progress/change with aging
This involves visual, auditory, and kinesthetic input from proprioceptive and vestibular receptors.
Posture and balance are maintained in various situations.
Stationary and moving
On various body parts and surfaces
Balance improves throughout childhood and adolescence.
The pattern of improvement is task specific.
The trend is to rely more on kinesthetic information and less on visual information.
older adults: Changes in sensory receptors Possible overreliance on vision
Loss of strength
Arthritic conditions in joints Slower nerve conduction speed
identify sociocultural constraints
Social values, morals, ideals, norms, stereotypes
Culturally specific concepts about movement behaviors
They create an atmosphere encouraging socially acceptable and discouraging socially unacceptable movement activities.
Difference between socializing agents, social situations and personal attributes
socializing agents: family, peers, coaches, teachers
social situations: games, play environment, toys
personal attributes: strength, skill, motivation, perceived ability
gender typing and its role in sociocultural development
Socializing agents, including significant others, often encourage children to participate in “gender- appropriate” activities.
Boys: “masculine” sports (e.g., football, wrestling) Girls: “feminine” sports (e.g., gymnastics, figure
skating)
Societal attitudes about gender-appropriate activities can restrict physical activity options for boys and girls.
“significant others” and the role they play in sociocultural development
Influential people who are considered socializing agents
Parents, siblings, peers, teachers, and coaches
“social situations” and the role they play in sociocultural development
Play environments and games can act as constraints.
* Lack of adequate space can diminish opportunities for gross motor activity.
* Gender-typed play environments, games, and toys can deprive girls of opportunities to perform complex, difficult skills.
Play with toys can act as constraints.
* May encourage children to be active or inactive
Identify other sociocultural constraints
race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status
It is often difficult to distinguish between sociocultural constraints and individual constraints.
Racial characteristics are biological based and relate to genetic similarities within groups.
Ethnic characteristics are culturally based and relate to cultural similarities that connect groups.
define psychosocial influences
Interaction of individual (functional) constraints with environmental (sociocultural) constraints
Emotions, perceived ability, and other personal attributes
self-esteem and identify its domains
social interactions: parental appraisal, comparison with others, teacher or coach feedback
emotions: enjoyment, pride, excitement with success, disappointment, stress with failure
causal attributions
Causal attributions are the reasons people give for their successes and failures. People tend to act in ways that confirm their beliefs.
A person with high self-esteem makes the following causal attributions: Internal: The person is responsible for his or her own success or failure.
Stable: The outcome-influencing factors are consistent from one situation to the next.
Controllable: The person is in control of the outcome-influencing factors.
A person with low self-esteem makes the following causal attributions:
External: Success and failure are due to influences outside the person.
Unstable: The outcome is based on fluctuating influences (e.g., luck).
Uncontrollable: The person is unable to control or influence the outcome.
children’s attributions vs adult attributions
Children with high self-esteem give internal, stable, controllable reasons for outcomes.
Children with low self-esteem tend to make inaccurate attributions about outcomes and exhibit the following behaviors:
Unwillingness to try challenging tasks Lack of effort to do well
Avoidance of participation
Adults evaluate themselves in these ways:
Observing past and present accomplishments and failures Comparing themselves with others
Receiving verbal persuasion from others
Observing their physiological state or fitness level
reasons for persistence vs dropping out in children
Self-esteem and motivation to participate are related in both children and adults.
High motivation level is essential for beginning or maintaining participation in sports and physical activities.
Persistence is continued engagement in physical activity and sport.
Dropping out and discontinuing engagement in physical activity and sport can occur by controllable or uncontrollable factors.
Children have a desire to
be competent by improving skills or attaining goals, affiliate with or make new friends,
be part of a team,
undertake competition and be successful,
have fun, and
improve fitness.
reasons for dropping out
Dislike of coach
Lack of playing time
Too much pressure
Too much time required Overemphasis on winning Lack of fun
Lack of progress
Lack of success
factors related to adult activity levels and participation
personal incentives, sense of self, perceived options
Adult participation levels may be limited by these factors:
Stereotypes of appropriate activity levels
Limited access to facilities and programs
Childhood experiences
Concerns over personal limitations on exercise
Belief that exercise is harmful to health
Lack of role models
Lack of knowledge about appropriate exercise programs
