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BSCI170 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Membrane protein functions

A

-Transport (stuff in and out of cell)
-Enzymatic activity (activity between enzymes)
-Signal transduction (signaling molecules and receptors)
-Cell-cell recognition (hey this is me)
(Ex: HIV can only enter in cell if CD4 proteins and co-receptor CCR5 are there (needs coreceptor to recognize))
-Intercellular joining (combine two cells)
-Attachment to cytoskeleton (stability of cell)

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2
Q

Diffusion

A

movement from [high] to [low]

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3
Q

Osmosis

A

-Movement of water through membrane from [high] to [low]
-moves through aquaporins
-passive transport

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4
Q

Isotonic

A

Solution around cell has same solute concentration

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5
Q

Hypotonic

A

Solution around cell has lower solute concentration, so water moves into cell

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6
Q

Hypertonic

A

solution around cell has higher solute concentration, so water leaves cell

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7
Q

Equilibrium

A

net movement of molecules is the SAME on both sides of the membrane

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8
Q

Selective Permeability

A

small hydrophobic molecules move the fastest through membranes (hydrophilic molecules have a hard time passing across because they are hydrophilic like the exterior of the membrane, so have a hard time passing through)

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9
Q

Types of Transmembrane Proteins

A

Channel and Carrier proteins

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10
Q

Channel proteins

A
  • passive transport only
    -hydrophilic pores
    -may be gated to control diffusion
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11
Q

Types of gated channel proteins

A

-Ligand
-Electrically
-Mechanically

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12
Q

Carrier proteins

A

-specific binding of a solute
-slower than channel proteins
-passive or active transport
-can be fully saturated

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13
Q

Passive Transport

A
  • no energy required
    -[high] to [low]
    -driving force is electrochemical gradient
    -channel and carriers
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14
Q

Active transport

A
  • requires energy like ATP
    -[low] to [high]
    -only by carriers
    -can create an electrochemical gradient
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15
Q

Symport

A

molecules move through in same direction

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16
Q

Antiport

A

molecules move through in different direction

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17
Q

Primary active cotransport

A

-energy put in to actively move two substances across membrane
-Ex: Na+/ K+ ATPase Pump
-creates gradient

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18
Q

Secondary active cotransport

A

-fueled by gradient
-Ex: secondary active glucose pump to pump glucose from [low] to [high]

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19
Q

Bulk transport definition and types

A

Moves large molecules
Types:
-Phagocytosis: cell engulfs food
-Pinocytosis: cell engulfs fluid
-Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis: ligands bin to receptors to bring in specific molecules

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20
Q

Juxtacrine signaling

A

adjacent cell signaling

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21
Q

Paracrine signaling

A

nearby cell signaling

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22
Q

Synaptic signaling

A

electrical signal triggers release of neurotransmitter

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23
Q

Endocrine signaling

A

distant cells (bloodstream)

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24
Q

cell response

A

change in cellular activity:
-gene expression
-enzyme activity
-cell division
-cytoskeletal structure
-motor activity

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25
Q

Lipid-soluble signals

A

-hydrophobic- so can move through membrane
-binds to intracellular signals
-commonly steroids, thyroid hormone, NO

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26
Q

Water soluble signals

A

-hydrophobic
-needs help of receptors
-activates signal transduction pathway

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27
Q

Ligand-gated ion channel

A

ACh (signal) molecule binds to gated channel to allow Na+ through

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28
Q

G protein- coupled receptor

A

signal binds to receptor to dissociate G-protein and then activate effector protein that starts cell responses

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29
Q

Enzyme linked receptor

A

Insulin links to insulin receptor, which then binds phosphates to insulin receptor inside cell and carries out cellular responses

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30
Q

Phosphorylation

A

addition of a phosphate group to a molecule or ion
-protein kinase adds
-phosphatase removes

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31
Q

Second Messenger

A

-carry instructions from first messenger throughout cell
-most important is cAMP
G-protein –> adenylyl cyclase –> cAMP –> protein kinase A –> cellular response

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32
Q

Signal Transduction Pathway

A

-reception
-transduction
-cellular response

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33
Q

Amplification

A

small signal= large response

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34
Q

Regulation/ specificity

A

Cells responds to same signals differently
Ex: epinephrine in heart increases rate, but relaxes smooth muscle

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35
Q

Termination

A

-cell responses are limited
-balances kinase and phosphatase activities

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36
Q

Reduction

A

gaining electron

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37
Q

Oxidation

A

losing electron

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38
Q

reducing agent

A

gets oxidized
makes other molecule get reduced

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39
Q

oxidizing agent

A

gets reduced
makes other molecule get oxidized

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40
Q

Electrons move with what ion?

A

Hydrogen ions!

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41
Q

Do redox reactions release energy?

A

Yes! They are exergonic!

42
Q

NADH

A

oxidized form NAD+ is an electron acceptor during cellular respiration (NADH has the electron (tell by H+))

43
Q

Cellular Respiration steps

A
  1. Glycolysis
  2. Pyruvate Decarboxylation
  3. Citric Acid Cycle
  4. Oxidative Phosphorylation
44
Q

Glycolysis Purpose

A

-Split glucose into pyruvate
- C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (exergonic redox)

45
Q

Glycolysis Problem and Solutions

A

Problem: Glycolysis needs NAD+ to function
Solution: Fermentation under anaerobic conditions or aerobic respiration

46
Q

Glycolysis location in cell

A

Cytosol

47
Q

Glycolysis steps

A

-First, 2 ATP broken down in order to break down 1 glucose into 1 fructose

Secondly, fructose cleaved into 2 G3P

Thirdly, 2 G3P converted into 2 pyruvates by removing phosphates and other bonds. The removal of these bonds fuels energy to convert 2 NAD+ + 2 Pi into 2 NADH, as well as 4 ADP + 4 Pi into 4 ATP (substrate level phosphorylation)

(No O2 consumed and no carbon oxidized)

48
Q

Glycolysis input and output

A

Input:
1 6C glucose
2 NAD+
2 ADP
2 Pi
Output:
2 pyruvates
2 NADH and 2 H+
2 ATP (4 formed, but 2 used up)

49
Q

Lactate Fermentation

A

-generates NAD+ for glycolysis
-pyruvate reduced to lactate
-NADH from glycolysis oxidized to NAD+
-no consumption of ATP, O2, no oxidation of CO2

50
Q

Alcoholic Fermentation

A

-generates NAD+ for glycolysis
-1 pyruvate converted to 1 acetaldehyde (toxic) and 1 CO2
-NADH from glycolysis converted to NAD+ and converts acetaldehyde to ethanol (dehydrates)

51
Q

problem with anaerobic fermentation

A

Lots of energy still trapped in reduced organic molecules (pyruvate, ethanol, lactate)

52
Q

How does pyruvate enter mitochondria

A

passively transported through porin in outer mitochondria membrane.
Actively transported via H+ pyruvate cotransporter (symport) into inner membrane

53
Q

Pyruvate Decarboxylation

A

-step in-between glycolysis and citric acid cycle
-transport protein removes carboxyl group, producing CO2
-converts NAD+ to NADH
-combines with coenzyme A to form Acetyl CoA!!!

54
Q

Location of citric acid cycle

A

matrix of mitochondria

55
Q

How many cycles of citric acid cycle to oxidize 1 glucose molecule?

A

2 cycles

56
Q

Steps of Citric Acid Cycle

A
  1. Acetyl-CoA (2C) + Oxaloacetate (4C) → Citrate (6C) + CoA (leaves)
  2. 2 decarboxylations (removal of CO2)
  3. 1 substrate level phosphorylation (take a phosphate group away and convert GDP to GPT)
  4. 4 oxidations/ reductions of:
    3 NAD+ → 3 NADH + 3 H+ (6 electrons)
    1 FAD → 1 FADH2 (2 electrons)

Overall regenerates Oxaloacetate (4C) to start over again

57
Q

End products from citric acid cycle and pyruvate decarboxylation

A

-6 carbons converted to 6 CO2
-2 ATP
-8 NADH
-2 FADH2
(90% energy stored in NADH and FADH2)

Reduced all carbons and stored energy in reduced coenzymes

58
Q

Problem at end of Citric Acid Cycle + solution

A

Problem: Energy is stored in energy carriers!
Answer: Oxidative Phosphorylation

59
Q

Oxidative Phosphorylation 2 processes

A

Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis

60
Q

ETC location

A

inner mitochondria membrane

61
Q

Point of ETC

A

extract electrons from electron carriers, reducing energy levels to level of water, regenerate NAD+ for glycolysis, and creating electrochemical gradient

62
Q

Respiratory Complex I

A

-pumps H+ ions
-converts NADH to NAD+

63
Q

Respiratory Complex II

A
  • does NOT pump H+
    -converts FADH2 to FAD
64
Q

Coenzyme Q or CoQ

A

accepts electrons from complexes I and II and transports to III

65
Q

Respiratory Complex III

A

-pumps H+ ions

66
Q

Cytochrome C

A

transports electrons from complex III to IV

67
Q

Respiratory Complex IV

A

-pumps H+ ions across membrane
-oxygen combines with end electrons and H+ to form water
(reason we breathe O2!!)

68
Q

End of ETC

A

electrons reduced and combined with O2 to make water, gradient formed, NAD+ (glycolysis and citric acid cycle!) and FAD regenerated

69
Q

ATP Synthase Complex

A

converts ADP to Pi by using energy creating from electrochemical gradient

70
Q

ATP degenerated from NADH and FADH2

A

NADH- 2-3 ATP
FADH2- 1-2 ATP

71
Q

Total ATP generated from Cellular respiration

A

32!

72
Q

Versatility of Cellular Respiration

A

-catabolic pathways funnel electrons from many different organic molecules (proteins, carbs, fats) which can enter into different steps in cellular respiration
-lots of carbs accepted

73
Q

Regulation of cellular respiration

A

Based on feedback inhibition. If not enough ATP, processes speed up. If enough ATP, processes slow down. Done by regulating enzymes along metabolic pathway

74
Q

Photosynthesis vs Aerobic respiration

A

AR:
-C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
-Electrons removed from carbs and added to oxygen
-Exergonic- electrons lose energy (ETC)

P:
-6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
-Electrons from water added to CO2 to form carbohydrates and release oxygen
-Endergonic- electrons gain energy! (excitement stage)

75
Q

Two Parts of Photosynthesis

A

Light Dependent and Light Independent (Calvin cycle)

76
Q

Why are plants green

A

-Green light wavelength is reflected/ transmitted, while all other wavelengths are absorbed
-Green wavelengths are the least productive for photosynthesis
-Many plants have chlorophyll pigment (green)

77
Q

Location of Light-dependent processes

A

-Chlorplast
-Specifically photosystems imbedded inside thylakoid membranes

78
Q

Photoexcitation process

A
  1. Light protons hit photosystem II, taking electrons from the oxidation of H2O (creates oxygen as byproduct)
  2. electron goes through electron transport creating ATP (Able to happen because electrochemical gradient formed by passing electron)
  3. Electron goes to photosystem I, and is re-excited by photons
  4. Electron goes to NADP+ reductase to convert NADP+ to NADPH
79
Q

PSII vs PSI

A

PSII- wavelength 680
(electron from water)
PSI- wavelength 700
(electron from ETC)

80
Q

End of Light-Dependent reactions

A

-Energy stored in NADPH and ATP for Calvin cycle
-O2 byproduct

81
Q

Light Independent Location

A

-chloroplast
-Specifically stroma (like cytoplasm)

82
Q

Input of Light Independent

A

-3 CO2
-9 ATP
-6 NADPH

83
Q

Output of Light Independent

A

G3P! (precursor to glucose)

84
Q

Needed organic carbon for start of Calvin cycle

A

Ribulose Bisphosphate (RuBP)

85
Q

Steps of Calvin cycle (3)

A
  1. Carbon fixation to RuBP
    (RuBP) (5C) + CO2 (1C)→ 1 3-Phosphoglycerate (2 x 3C) (happens 3 times)
  2. Reduction: addition of electrons to create carbohydrate
    (6 ATP + 6 NADPH –> 6 G3P)
    1 G3P released!
  3. Reorganization: 3 ATP help convert 5 G3P to 3RuBP
86
Q

G3P purpose

A

-Energy storage (becomes glucose)
-Energy transport (sucrose synthesis)
-Oxidation of G3P in cytosol and mitochondria for ATP

87
Q

Rubsico problem?

A

It can fix CO2 or O2, but the fixation of O2 is toxic. So cells must limit O2 in presence of Rubisco. Solution is C4 plants and CAM plants
(or enzyme is CO2 specific)

88
Q

C4 plants

A

-C4 plants separate carbon fixation from where rubisco is (different place- separate cell)
-Carbon fixation happens twice
-Rubisco avoids O2

89
Q

CAM plants

A

-Fix carbon at night (stored in vacuole)
-Complete cycle during the day with sun

90
Q

Genetic material

A

-material used to store info for a cell, organelle or virus to carry out activities and replicate
-needs to be stored
-read in a way cells can understand
-transferred to next generations

91
Q

T/F: Proteins can store genetic material that can be transferred back to DNA.

A

False
DNA and RNA transferrable, but once it’s given to protein it cannot be transferred back

92
Q

Mendel

A

Purpose: Traits inherited independently
Experiment: dominant and recessive traits through peas

93
Q

Morgan

A

Purpose: Genes located on chromosomes
Experiment: mapped gene expression in fruit flies

94
Q

Griffith

A

Purpose: “transforming principles” passed down from dead to living cells
Experiment: found that when dead virulent (S) cells were combined with live benign cells, virulent material was passed down

95
Q

Avery, McCarty and MacLeod

A

Purpose: Transforming principle is DNA
Experiment:
-Had 3 mixtures with either no proteins, no RNA, or no DNA
-Mixed with non living S cells
-Whichever did not make living S cells is the transforming factor!! (DNA)

96
Q

Hershey and Chase

A

Purpose: genes composed of DNA
Experiment:
-Two separate cultures tracking radioactive isotopes spreading to infected cells through bacteriophage
-S= Protein, P= DNA
-The culture that had no radioactivity in solutions and only in cells was the one that held genetic material (DNA)

97
Q

Chargaff

A

organism has equal ratio of A:T and G:C nucleotides in all cells

98
Q

Rosalind Franklin

A

Used XRays and found that shape of DNA is a double strand helix

99
Q

James Watson

A

Goldilocks principle: determined position of A+T, G+C

100
Q

Why did scientist not believe DNA was genetic material

A

believed it was too simple! Thought proteins were more structurally and functionally diverse

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