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Intro to Cognitive Psychology > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Compare the classical and family resemblance theories of categorization. Describe three experiments from your book and/or lecture which support a Family Resemblance (or graded structure) view.

A

Classical theory: Concepts have precise definitions based on defining features
Family resemblance theory: We group concepts into categories based on a similar prototype.
Rosch 1975, used vehicle & others in a study where participants where asked to rate the extent to which basic level examples represented their image or idea of the subordinate category. NEED TWO MORE XXX.

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2
Q

What are the claims of some of the other theories of categorization mentioned in lecture & text (e.g., Exemplar View, Psychological Essentialism, etc.)? How do these theories contribute to a fuller understanding of how people represent concepts?

A

Exemplar view: assumes that there is no single mental representation of a concept instead all one has in memory are the specific items or examples of the concept.
Psychological essentialism: belief that many categories have some essential components that explains how and why deep & surface features coalesce
These theories XXX

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3
Q

What are “ontological categories?” How do neuropsychology patients exhibit differential abilities to identify/define living vs. non-living entities? How can one indicate relationships among concepts in a semantic network?

A
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4
Q

(a) What are the various levels of linguistic analysis? (b) How does research in tip-of-the-tongue and lexical speech errors shed light on word retrieval?

A

Prosody, Phonology, Morphology
TOT state is due to partial activation of the phonological specification og a word, specifically for beginning sounds or letters

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5
Q

Compare the nativist theory of Chomsky to the empiricist theory of BF Skinner. Is there evidence for a critical period in language learning, as Lenneberg proposed? For which aspects of language?

A

Chomsky believed language learning to be innate, while BF Skinner argued that we develop our language through what we pick up from the surrounding environment. There is evidence for a critical period in language learning which seems to be when you are very young before age 10, however this seems to be for grammatical aspects of language, vocabulary and words in of itself seems to not necessarily be as strongly affected

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6
Q

Briefly describe the symptoms of Broca’s aphasia, Wernicke’s aphasia, conduction aphasia, and anomia. Where are these patients’ deficits (within the levels of analysis discussed above)? Be able to locate the place in the cortex which, when damaged, causes each of these language syndromes.

A

Broca’s aphasia symptoms are when one struggles to form complete sentences with poor and lacking grammar. Due to damage of left frontal inferior gyrus
Wernicke’s aphasia: patients can speak fluently however the sentences are often meaningless and filled with neologisms and paraphasias. Due to damage to superior temporal gyrus of left hemisphere
Anomia: constant tip of tongue state, patients consistently fail to retrieve names of common objects. There is semantic anomia which is a degradation of semantic knowledge, and pure anomia which is a perpetual ToT state with problems with phonological retrieval. Located in bilateral occipital and parietal cortex, along with some temporal lobe activation. Also left temporal regions in and around Wernicke’s area.

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7
Q

What are the strong vs. weak claims of the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis? Of Universalism? What types of concepts have been studied to see if they are influenced by linguistic relativity?

A
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8
Q

What are Type 1 and Type 2 decision making? Explain the arguments and theories about whether people are rational or not when they make decisions. What did Tversky & Kahnemann mean when they said that the biases people use in reasoning/decision-making tasks are like “cognitive illusions?” Are they right? (b) What are some of the biases that people exhibit in decision making (and know how to apply them to new examples)?

A

Arguments about wether ppl are rational would be expected value theory which is making a gamble when decision making. EPV is rational decision making, however it represents what humans are SUPPOSED to do, but we don’t
Cognitive Illusions: ppl can’t help but make errors in reasoning even when they know about the errors
Heuristics

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9
Q

How can people’s reasoning/decision-making be improved? Why would frequency formats (such as those used by Gigerenzer & Sedlmeier) make people more accurate at estimating conditional probabilities?

A
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10
Q

Concepts, categories

A

Concepts are mental representations made up of one’s knowledge about a type of object, or an idea. Categories are the actual divisions that we use in dividing up the world

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11
Q

Nominal categories

A

Based on definitions set by humans

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12
Q

Natural categories

A

Objects found in the natural world

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13
Q

Artifact categories

A

Objects that are human made

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14
Q

Living/Nonliving & Animate/Inan. Categories

A

Living is any living thing. Nonliving is something that is not living. Animate is anything that moves and acts of its own will. Inanimate is anything that is consistently in a still mode, non living.

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15
Q

Superordinate

A

The most general concept

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16
Q

Basic level

A

Most commonly used level

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17
Q

Subordinate

A

Subcategories under basic level concepts (detailed)

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18
Q

Classical view

A

The view that concepts have precise definitions based on defining features

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19
Q

Necessary & jointly sufficient features

A

Apart of the classical view that defines categories

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20
Q

Family resemblance view

A

States that categories are based around one central prototype

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21
Q

Prototype

A

A part of family resemblance view. Basically what is used as reference for categories

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22
Q

Linguistic hedges

A

Qualifying phrases to indicate the peripheral status of some category members (“technically it is a fruit but it’s a veggie as well”)

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22
Q

Peripheral Members

A

Items that have minimal overlap with other items in the category

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23
Q

Characteristic features

A

The defining features of a specific category

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24
Q

Exemplar view

A

Assumes that there is no single mental representation of a concept, instead all one has in memory are examples of the concept

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25
Q

Psychological essentialism

A

Belief that many categories have some essential components that explains how and why deep and surface features coalesce (DNA in animals)

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26
Q

Knowledge-based theories

A

How we acquire, process and utilize knowledge

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27
Q

Ad hoc categories

A

Impromptu or improvised concepts with no obvious thread of similarity connecting the concepts

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28
Q

Category Specific Impairments

A

Systematic loss of knowledge about some categories while maintaining knowledge of others

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29
Q

Semantic Networks

A

A representation of semantic relation between concepts

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30
Q

Language

A

A form of communication, problem solving, remembering info, and a mode of thought

31
Q

pragmatics

A

The study of the rules of social discourse

32
Q

semantics

A

The study of meaning

33
Q

propositions

A

A description of information

34
Q

syntax

A

The study of the grammatical organization of sentences

35
Q

morphology/morphemes

A

The study of the basic units of meaning that make up words. Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language

36
Q

free/bound morphemes

A

Free Morphemes are morphemes that can stand alone. Bound morphemes are morphemes that cannot stand alone

37
Q

lexicon

A

Mental dictionary

38
Q

inflection/prosody

A

Inflection is the tone/pitch of how things are said. Prosody is the study of the role of intonation, pitch, and stress or emphasis in language

39
Q

phonology/phonemes

A

Phonology is analysis of basic units of sound in language. Phonemes are the individual sounds that make up a language

40
Q

Places of articulation

A

Specific parts in mouth used to produce phonemes

41
Q

Bilabial

A

bringing together 2 lips and bursting apart with air forced from lungs

42
Q

Labiodental

A

contact with lips and teeth

43
Q

Manner of Articulation

A

how words are said

44
Q

Fricatives

A

sustained turbulence in sound stream

45
Q

Lexical ambiguity

A

Activation of multiple meanings of words

46
Q

Tip-of-the-tongue

A

When one is trying to recall a word or name without success but with a distinct feeling that success is on the horizon

47
Q

Transmission Deficit Model

A

Explains that TOTs is caused by weak connections between the word and phonological levels

48
Q

Skinner

A

Believed language is learned like every other behavior. Through imitation and reinforcement.

49
Q

Associative chaining

A

Accounts for syntax. Stringing together words based on association strength of word pairs as they fit a context. All of grammar learned through associationist tenets

50
Q

Chomsky

A

One of the first researchers to propose a comprehensive analysis of the formal aspects of language

51
Q

Nativism

A

Learning of syntax is a biologically programmed skill, allowing children to abstract universal grammar from what they hear

52
Q

Generativity

A

Novelty in children’s syntax & morphology

53
Q

Modularity

A

Language is a domain specific skill. Independent from other cognitive abilities

54
Q

Critical period (Lenneberg)

A

The time up to puberty in which language acquisition and development is most important

55
Q

lateralization

A

Idea that different sides of the brain perform different functions

56
Q

Genie

A

A girl who was locked alone somewhere from age 20 months - 13 years who was then trained to learn her first language, however proved to only develop to the ability of a 2 ½ years old. Becomes a justification for the CPH theory

57
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

Ability to speak fluently yet sentences are often meaningless

58
Q

Neologisms

A

Creation of new nonsensical words common during Wernicke’s aphasics

59
Q

Semantic/phonological Paraphasia

A

Semantic paraphasias are errors of various sorts of semantic info. Phonological paraphasias are mispronunciations

60
Q

Anomia

A

Constant TOT state

61
Q

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

A

Language we use influences how we can think conceptually

62
Q

Universalism

A

We all perceive concepts the same way, differences are in talking about these concepts. (some languages don’t have a direct translation but with description or using adjectives the concept is still understandable to non speakers of that language). Color is better explained by universalism.

63
Q

Expected Value theory

A

Every decision is like gamble

64
Q

Prospect theory

A

Subjective value: value of a choice is calculated based on the subjective probability RELATIVE to some reference point.

65
Q

Asymmetry of Gains/Losses

A

displeasure associated with a loss is much more greater than the pleasure associated with a commensurate gain, often making people loss averse

66
Q

Availability heuristic

A

Basing decisions on what is most accessible in memory (recency, distinctiveness, familiarity)

67
Q

Representative heuristic

A

Basing decisions on whether elements of a problem match the prototypical features for some category – similarity based decision making

68
Q

Conjunction fallacy

A

Not complying with the statistical notion that Pr(2 events/traits) is always less than the Pr(1 event) Likelihood that 2 things occurs always has to be less than the probability than 1 thing occurs unless both are 100%

69
Q

Base rates

A

Statistical information

70
Q

Anchoring & adjustment

A

Evaluate outcomes as changes from a reference point (items on sale are deemed a better deal)

71
Q

Framing effects

A

How a problem is pitched affects decision making

72
Q

Confirmation bias

A

Having a viewpoint and then seeking out more information to confirm this info

73
Q

Bayes’ theorem

A

A mathematical formula for calculating conditional probabilitied

74
Q

Frequency formats

A

More evolutionary natural way to reason

Intro to Cognitive Psychology (2 decks)

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