Exam 2

Question 1

Name 3 receptors that are directly targeted by alcohol

Answer 1

1. GABAA Receptors
2. GABAB Receptors
3. NMDA Receptors

Question 2

How does alcohol contribute at GABAA to an increase or decrease in neural activity?

Answer 2

alcohol is a positive allosteric modulator at GABAA receptors. It enhances the ability of GABA to open the ion channel and lead to an inhibitory effect on neural activity

Question 3

How does alcohol act as an increase or decrease in neural activity in GABAB?

Answer 3

Alcohol alters the function o some subtypes of GABAB receptors (particularly dopamine synapses) it stimulate the release of dopamine which can have excitatory effects

Question 4

how does alcohol affect an increase or decrease in neural activity with the NMDA receptors?

Answer 4

alcohol blocks the ion channel controlled by glutamate at NDMA receptors. This results in decrease in neural activity which is an inhibitory effect

Question 5

Describe three factors that facilitate the absorption of alcohol

Answer 5

1. Concentration (higher alcohol concentrations lead to faster absorption rates into the bloodstream)
2. empty stomach (alcohol is absorbed faster on an empty stomach as it allows for quicker passage into the bloodstream
3. carbonation (carbonated beverages like champagne can facilitate the passage of alcohol through stomach, aiding in absorption

Question 6

what is grey out?

Answer 6

partial memory loss or impairment of events due to alcohol or drug use

Question 7

what is en bloc blackout

Answer 7

complete loss of memory for events that occurred during a specific period, typically due to alcohol or drug use

Question 8

how do benzodiazepines and alcohol differ with respect to their effects on memory?

Answer 8

Benzodiazepines create deficits in explicit memory, not implicit. Trouble recalling info explicitly but can use info acquired implicit.
Alcohol can lead to grey outs or en bloc blackouts, essentially partial or complete memory loss for events

Question 9

Describe the mechanism through which an en bloc blackout is produced?

Answer 9

brain structure - en bloc blackouts are produced by affecting the hippocampus, a brain region crucial for memory formation

receptor mechanism - alcohol and benzodiazepines act on GABA receptors in the brain, inhibiting neuronal activity and disrupting memory formation in the hippocampus which leads to en bloc blackout

Question 10

what receptor is the primary target for benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and z drugs?

Answer 10

GABAA receptor

Question 11

what is the ion associated with the receptor that is primary target for benzodiazepines, barbiturates, z drugs

Answer 11

chloride (cl-)

Question 12

will an agonist at the receptor will produce inhibitory or excitatory effect?

Answer 12

an agonist at the GABAA receptor will produce an inhibitory effect by hyperpolarizing the cell membrane

Question 13

describe three differences between the psychological effects of benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and Z drugs

Answer 13

• benzodiazepines
  known for anxiolytic effects, muscle relaxation, and anticonvulsant properties

-barbituates, produce sedation, hypnosis, and anesthesia effects, with potential for respiratory depression

z drugs - primarily used for treating insomnia (focus on inducing sleep rather than anxiolytic effects), with less potential for respiratory depression compared to barbitautes

Question 14

describe three neurotransmission systems through which nicotine increases or decreases dopamine release from the ventral segmental area

Answer 14

1. glutamatergic system
   - nicotine increases the activity of glutamatergic neurons, boosting glutamate release through presynaptic receptors and increasing depolarization of postsynaptic neurons. This leads to increased dopamine release from the ventral segmental area and nucleas accumbent
2. nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs)
   - nicotine acts on nachrs on dopaminergic neurons projecting from the ventral tenemental area to the nucleus accumbent. Activation of these receptors by nicotine influences dopamine release

3.mesolimbic dopamine system
- nicotine affects the mesolimbic dopamine system, leading to increased dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens/ The system plays a crucial role in reward and reinforcement processes

Question 15

evidence of glutamatergic system with nicotine affect on dopamine release from ventral segmental area

Answer 15

activation of glutamatergic neurons by nicotine leads to increased dopamine activity in the nucleus accumbent when the ventral segmental area is stimulated

Question 16

evidence of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) affect on dopamine release from ventral tenemental area

Answer 16

knockout misce lacking the beta2 subunit of nAChRs do not show a surge in dopamine in the nucleus accumbent when stimulated

Question 17

evidence of mesolimbic dopamine system affect on dopamine release from ventral segmental area

Answer 17

increased dopamine activity in the nucleus accumbens is observed when the ventral segmental area is stimulated, indicating the modulation of dopamine release by nicotine in this system

Question 18

describe three measures of performance in the five-choice serial reaction time task (5CSRTT)

Answer 18

accuracy - participants ability to correctly identify and respond to the target stimulus among distractors

reaction time - this I the time taken by the participant to respond to the target stimulus after its presentation

omissions
-errors where the participant fails to respond to the target stimulus within a specific time frame

Question 19

effect of nicotine administration on measure from 5CSRTT

Answer 19

accuracy
- improves accuracy, leading to more precise and correct responses to the target stimulus

reaction time
- enhances reaction time, resulting in quicker response to the target stimulus compared to control conditions

omissions
- reduced the number of omissions, indicating an improvement in the participants ability to respond to all presented stimuli within the required time Frame and fewer incorrect responses

Question 20

describe three effects of caffeine on human performance (physical or mental)

Answer 20

1. improved cognitive function
   - caffeine at low doses can enhance sustained intellectual effort and a more perfect association of ideas. It can improve attention, reaction times, and working memory tasks
2. enhanced athletic performances
   - in appropriate doses, caffeine can improve endurance in activities like cross-country skiing, running, cycling. it can reverse performance decrements caused by factors of boredom, fatigue, and caffeine withdrawal
3. increased alertness and energy
   - caffeine consumption can lead to increased well-being, motivation for work, self-confidence, and energy levels. It can also improve concentration, social disposition, and alertness.

Question 21

describe a pharmacodynamic mechanism that accounts for caffeine tolerance

Answer 21

adaptation of adenosine receptors
- chronic caffeine consumption leads to an upregulation in the number of adenosine receptors. This adaptation occurs as a response to the blocking effect of caffeine on adenosine receptors, which results in counteracting the effects of caffeine over time

Question 22

name two symptoms associated with caffeine withdrawal

Answer 22

1. headaches
2. fatique
3. lethargy

Question 23

what effect does caffeine have on athletic performance and how is this mediated?

Answer 23

caffeine mediates its effect on athletic performance by reducing fatigue and enhancing endurance through its stimulant properties. it can increase alertness, delay fatigue, and improve focus, allowing athletes to perform better in endurance-based activities.

Question 24

describe the mechanism through which cocaine exerts its actions as a local anesthetic

Answer 24

cocain blocks Na+ ion channels in membranes, inhibiting action potential conduction along nerve axons

Question 25

mechanism through which cocaine exerts its actions as a psychomotor stimulant

Answer 25

sympathetic nervous system activation (SNS)
- cocaine activates the SNS, causing an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, and bronchodilation

central nervous system (CNS) stimulation
- cocaine acts as a psychomotor stimulant by enhancing CNS activity, leading to an increased alertness, energy, and euphoria

Question 26

List 2 harmful consequences of cocaine overdoses

Answer 26

cocaine sudden death syndrome
- initial excitement followed by severe symptoms like headache, nausea, vomiting, convulsions, loss of consciousness, respiratory depression and cardiac failure

cardiovascular effects
- large doses of cocaine can cause muscle weakness, respiratory depression, and intense cardiovascular effects, leading to fatal outcomes

Question 27

name and describe the mechanism of action for three psychomotor stimulant pharmaceutical tratements

Answer 27

1. modafinil
   - stimulates dopamine, norepinephrine, glutamate transmission, and histamine release. it acts as a cognitive enhancer, treats ADHD, and narcolepsy-related sleepiness
2. amphetamines (adderall)
   - increase the release of dopamine In the brain by blocking the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, leading to increased alertness and focus
3. methylphenidate (ritalin)
   - blocks the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine increasing their levels in the brain. This action improves attention and focus in individuals with ADHD