Exam 2 Flashcards
Arguments
A set of statements where some of the statements are intended to support another
(shows THAT some statement is true)
Unsupported Assertions
A statement that is presented as a truth but without any evidence or support for it
Report
A set of statements intended to provide information about a situation, topic, or event
(provides information)
Illustration
A statement together with an explanatory or clarifying example
(shows WHAT a statement means)
Explanation
Provides a reason for the occurrence of some phenomenon
(shows WHY a statement is true)
Conditional Statement
An if, then statement
Well-Crafted Argument
An argument that is stated in such a way that its important logical features are explicit
Excess Verbiage
A word or statement that adds nothing to the argument
Discount
An acknowledgement of a fact or possibility that might be thought to render the argument invalid, weak, unsound or uncogent
Repetition
A restatement of a premise or conclusion, perhaps with slightly altering wording
Assurance
A statement, word, or phrase that indicates that the author is confident of a premise or inference
Hedge
A statement, word, or phrase that indicates that the author is uncertain about a premise or inference
Sub-Conclusion
A claim that looks like a conclusion because it is supported by one or more statements but isn’t the main conclusion
Implicit Premise
A premise that is not mentioned, but is assumed or implied by the context of the argument
Constructing a Well-Crafted Argument
- Identify the premises and the conclusion
- Eliminate excess verbiage
- Employ uniform language
- Be fair and charitable in interpreting an argument
- Do not confuse sub conclusions with (final) conclusions
- Make explicit obliviously implicit premises in a charitable way
What does it mean for premises to provide independent support for a conclusion (or sub-conclusion)?
Each premise provides independent support, so if one premise is removed, the support provided by the other premises do not decrease
What does it mean for premises to provide interdependent support for a conclusion (or subconclusion)?
The premises work together as a logical unit, so if one is removed, the support of the others is decreased
Categorical Statement
A statement that related two classes or categories
Four Standard Forms (categorical statements)
A: All S are P
E: No S are P
I: Some S are P
O: Some S are not P
A form
All S are P
universal affirmative
E form
No S are P
universal negative
I form
Some S are P
particular affirmative
O form
Some S are not P
particular negative
Subject Term
The first noun or noun phrase that appears in a categorical statement when it is put into standard form
Predicate Term
The second noun or noun phrase that appears in a categorical statement when it is put into standard form
Stylistic Variants (A: All S are P)
-Every S is a P
-Each S is a P
-Any S is a P
-If anything is an S, then it is a P
-Things are S only if they are P
-Only P are S
Stylistic Variants (E: No S are P)
-Nothing that is an S is a P
-A thing is an S only if it is not a P
-If anything is an S, then it is not a P
-Nothing is an S unless it is not a P
Stylistic Variants (I: Some S are P)
-There are S that are P
-At least one S is a P
-There exists an S that is a P
-Something is both an S and a P
Stylistic Variants (O: Some S are not P)
-At least one S is not a P
-Not all S are P
-Not every S is a P
-Something is an S but not a P
-There is an S that is not a P
Immediate Inference
When a conclusion is drawn from only one premise
Corresponding Statements
Categorical statements that share the same subject and predicate terms
(ex: All dogs are collies, Some dogs are collies)
Contradictories
Two statements that cannot both be true and cannot both be false (A and O, E and I)
Contraries
Two statements that cannot both be true but can both be false (A and E)
Subcontraries
Two statements that cannot both be false but can both be true (I and O)
Subalternation
The logical relationship between a universal statement and its corresponding particular statement (A to I, E to O)
Superaltern vs. Subaltern
Super – universal statement
Sub – particular statement
Necessary Truth
A statement that cannot be false under any possible circumstances
Necessary Falsehood
A statement that cannot be true under any circumstances
Traditional Square of Opposition
A–Contraries–E
A–Subalternation–I
A–Contradictories–O
E–Contraries–A
E–Subalternation–O
E–Contradictories–I
I–Subcontraries–O
I–Contradictories–E
O–Subcontraries–I
O–Contradictories–A
