Exam 2

Question 1

Define social exchange theory

Answer 1

Relationships are an economic exchange of rewards and costs that lead to various outcomes. We want the best possible outcome for ourselves.

Question 2

differences between costs and rewards

Answer 2

Costs- punishing or undesirable experiences within the relationship. Ex: money issues, negative physical punishment, psychological burdens etc.
Rewards- gratifying experiences and commodities within relationship. Differ based on preferences (culture). Ex: love, affection, sex, etc.

Question 3

difference between a comparison level and a comparison level for alternatives

Answer 3

A comparison level is what you think you deserve.
A comparison level for alternatives is what you think you could get elsewhere (i.e. new partner).

Question 4

Based on our expectations, when are people most satisfied in relationships?

Answer 4

People are often satisfied/happy if the outcomes exceed or far surpass comparison level (receiving more than the minimum expected payoff).

Question 5

Based on our expectations, when are people least satisfied in relationships

Answer 5

People are often dissatisfied if outcomes fall below comparison level (receiving less than the minimum expected payoff).
**Matters more what your personal expectations are.

Question 6

What is a person’s investment level

Answer 6

how many resources someone has placed in a relationship. It includes both tangible and intangible things that might be lost if a relationship ends like money, sex, affection, effort. Harder to end relationship with more investments.

Question 7

how does investment level relate to relationship stability?

Answer 7

CLalt+Relationshipsatisfaction –>Dependence (barriers and investments) –> relationship stability

Question 8

Approach motivation

Answer 8

approach exchanges by pursuing pleasure and desirable experiences. Related to positive emotions. Want to be happy.

Question 9

Avoidance motivation

Answer 9

Approach exchanges by trying to escape punishment, pain, or avoid negative experiences. Reduces anxiety and fear.

Question 10

Can approach and avoidance motivations overlap?

Answer 10

Function as two independent mechanisms, however, could be where you seek out physical affection but avoid verbal arguments.

Question 11

Define an equitable relationship.

Answer 11

Relationships that are built on a standard of fair exchanges or proportional justice. Each partner’s benefits are equal to their contributions. This is the most satisfying relationship type. People are motivated to maintain equity- perceived equity is important.

Question 12

What is the investment model of relationships?

Answer 12

Increased life satisfaction and investment size and decreased quality of alternatives, there is a higher commitment level, which contributes to Relationship Maintenance Mechanisms like accommodation, willingness to sacrifice, and perceived superiority.

Question 13

maintenance behaviors

Answer 13

Accommodating behaviors, willingness to sacrifice, and perceived superiority

Question 14

Accommodating behaviors

Answer 14

tolerating negative behavior to calm a situation and not make it worse; not fighting back. Healthy if both partners do it, but unhealthy if one partner is always accommodating.

Question 15

Willingness to sacrifice

Answer 15

giving up own self-interests for the good of the relationship; doing things you wouldn’t do on your own. Harmful if one partner is sacrificing all the time.

Question 16

Perceived superiority

Answer 16

belief that even if a relationship is troubled, it is better than others, or has more reward.

Question 17

Define friendship.

Answer 17

Voluntary, personal relationship typically providing intimacy and assistance in which two parties like one another and seek the other’s company. Friendships must be mutual and voluntary, but power imbalances may alter beneficial outcomes.

Question 18

Why do friendships matter?

Answer 18

They are important for forming or maintaining romantic relationships. They introduce potential partners, approve, or disapprove of partners. Having happy friends can also increase self-happiness- also associated with better physical and mental health (optimism, self-esteem).

Question 19

Explain one difference between friendships and romance/love.

Answer 19

Friendship- less confining, easier to dissolve, fewer expressions of positive emotion, typically no sexual intimacy
Love- more complex and exclusive, includes fascination (preoccupation with partner) and sexual desire, more stringent standards (exclusive), more expressions of positivity.

Question 20

List and define the main elements of friendship.

Answer 20

Affective- sharing thoughts and feelings, providing emotional support, etc.
Communal- common activities, interests and values, giving and receiving practice/instrumental assistance.
Sociable- provides fun and recreation. Impacted people a lot during COVID.
Respect- Valuing each other’s talents and judgements. More respect-more satisfying relationship.
Trust-Confidence that a friend will behavior benevolently toward us. Take our best interests into account. Allows people to relax and be comfortable.
Capitalization-Responding eagerly and energetically to our good news. More capitalization-more satisfaction and longer friendships. Genuine positivity, not masking.
Social Support- Things we get from friends that help us through difficult times (affection, advice, material assistance). More social support-more relationship satisfaction and personal well-being. Support receivers feel closer to support givers and vice versa. (exception when only one is giving support).

Question 21

List and define the four main types of social support.

Answer 21

1) Emotional-affection, acceptance, reassurance, respect. Many positive psychological benefits like help mental illness, increase optimism. Opposite of these impacts occur if you only share negatives, however.
2) Physical comfort- positive physical affection. Positive mental health benefits
3) Advice- information and guidance. Recommendations on decisions.
4) Material- tangible assistance such as money or goods. Loaning money, cooking for someone, etc.

Question 22

What are friendship rules?

Answer 22

Shared cultural beliefs about what behaviors friends should perform. Good friends are expected to follow the rules. They help friendships operate smoothly.

Question 23

How do friendships differ across the lifespan?

Answer 23

Infancy- simple complementary and reciprocal interactions. Play is more associative and cooperative. Take pleasure in one another’s company.
Childhood- Able to take another’s perspective and understand points of view. Make-believe play and fair-weather cooperation (recognizing conflicts are more easily solved when both parties’ interests are served).
Adolescence- starts to take precedence over family. Turn to friends for satisfaction and attachment needs. Quality increases, quantity decreases.
Young adulthood- continued search for intimacy. Quality, not quantity. Friendships through major life transitions.
Midlife- dyadic withdrawal often due to life events like having kids. Number of friendships decrease.
Late adulthood- smaller social networks and fewer friends. Not unsociable, more selective.

Question 24

Describe the main differences in same-gender male vs. female friendships.

Answer 24

Women-spend more time talking to friends, discuss personal and emotional issues, self-disclose, emotional support, more love and affection.
Men- shared activities, companionship, activities that are “fun,” discuss sports and interests, less explicit expressions of love and affection.

Question 25

Describe how shyness can impact friendships.

Answer 25

Shyness- combination of social reticence an inhibited behaviors with discomfort in social settings. Creates a self-fulfilling prophecy/confirmation bias when it becomes chronic.
Shy concerns about what others think-> timid, awkward social behavior (low eye-contact, low self-disclosure) -> negative impressions from others. Perceived to be aloof, unsociable, unfriendly -> other’s responses are less engaging, less self-disclosing, more distant.

Question 26

Describe how loneliness can impact friendships

Answer 26

Loneliness- occurs when a person wants more, or more intimate connections with others than they currently have. Not physically alone, psychologically alone. Can lead to not fulfilling need to belong. Depression, physical health problems.

Question 27

What is the historical view of love?

Answer 27

Marriage primarily about resources and reproduction.
Greece- passionate attraction-madness
Egypt and Rome- reproduction, alliances, bloodline establishment
Middle ages- policies and property: erotic love was dangerous.
**love did not need to develop over time.
Thought that passionate loved was not desirable because it was considered to be doomed.

Question 28

How does love today differ from historical views of love?

Answer 28

Today, love is viewed as a requirement for marriage in most western cultures. In most eastern cultures, love is supposed to grow over time.

Question 29

Describe the general Westernized view of love. Does it apply across cultures?

Answer 29

Western belief that partners should love one another and it’s required for modern marriage. In the 70s, 76% women and 35% men married without love. Expectations of passionate love due to more individualisms and available individual economic resources. Does not apply across cultures because Eastern ideals include family involvement in choosing partners. Most cultures believe love develops after marriage as partners work together.

Question 30

Explain the biological aspects of love.

Answer 30

Romantic love and obsession have the same neurochemical properties. Low serotonin- feeling of love and obsession (like OCD). Higher oxytocin. Medications that inhibit serotonin reuptake can disrupt feelings of love (antidepressants).

Question 31

What is the triangular theory of love?

Answer 31

Love is comprised of three main components: intimacy, passion, and commitment. These may change over time and apply to all relationships. People usually move more toward center.
1) Intimacy- emotional component of love-not related to sexuality. Feelings of mutual understanding, bondedness, willingness to share, emotional support, valuing each other.
2) Passion- motivational drive of love. Feelings of physical attraction, sexual interactions, romance, ignorance of faults. World looks better. Most romantic relationships start this way.
3) Commitment- cognitive component of love. Feelings of loving another person, making long-term commitment to relationship, maintenance behaviors, sharing of physical belongings or people (showing off). Most common—start of arranged marriages.

Question 32

List the 8 “styles” of love based on the triangular theory of love.

Answer 32

1) Nonlove- all components of love are absent
2) Liking- intimacy only
3) Infatuation- passion only
4) Empty- commitment only
5) Romantic- passion + intimacy
6) Compassionate- Intimacy + commitment
7) Fatuous- Passion + commitment
8) Consummate- all three components present

Question 33

Other types of love (not Steinberg’s theory)

Answer 33

Romantic, passionate love- attraction rooted in physiological arousal (fast heartbeat and belief that other person is cause of this).
Companionate love- comfortable, affectionate, trusting love based on friendship. More settled than romantic love. Associated with satisfying and long-lasting marriages. Stable. Can also apply to friends/family.
Compassionate love-combination of trust and companionate understanding based on empathy, selflessness, and sacrifice for partner. Sharing good and bad experiences and providing support. Most stable over time.

Question 34

Describe differences of love in Western vs. Eastern cultures

Answer 34

Western- emphasis on attraction and matching. Love is the reason for marriage. Romantic fantasies are prominent. Emphasize interdependence as a reason to marry. Not as stable.
Eastern- emphasis on personality and family approval. Marriage is a family decision. Love is a mixed blessing (develops over time). Guided by parents’ wishes about whom to marry.

Question 35

How does attachment style impact intimacy?

Answer 35

Secure attachment- high regard of others and rate them as trustworthy, kind, dependable.
Insecure attachment- wary of others, suspicious, dishonesty

Question 36

How does attachment style impact passion?

Answer 36

Secure-more satisfying sex and orgasms
Insecure-anxiety over abandonment leads to more detached and impersonal passion

Question 37

How does attachment style impact commitment?

Answer 37

Secure- more commitment, more positive, intimate, stable relationship
Insecure-distrustful, may seek reason to end relationship

Question 38

How does attachment style impact caring/caregivers?

Answer 38

Secure- better caregivers/empathizers and do it for more selfless reasons
Insecure- less effective caregivers, get angry when asked to provide support

Question 39

Describe common attitudes about casual sex.

Answer 39

Today, less than 25% people say it’s immoral. Permissiveness with affection standard- se between unmarried partners is fine only if partners are in a committed, caring relationship. Ambivalence towards hookups-if you hookup for pos reason it’s fine, but neg reason it’s bad. Men have more permissive sexual values and attitudes.

Question 40

What is a sexual double standard?

Answer 40

Idea that women are judged more harshly for sexual experiences than men.

Question 41

Explain the main cultural differences about sexuality.

Answer 41

Sexual attitudes have become more permissive globally, but in the U.S. it’s fairly conservative. Other countries lead same-gender rights (Denmark, Norway, Canada, South Africa, France).

Question 42

When and with who are most people’s first sexual encounter?

Answer 42

97% adults have sex before marriage and the average age for men and women is 17. Majority of first encounters are partners in a stead, emotional relationship. Happens after gradual increase in intimate behavior. Often a positive experience.

Question 43

List and define the four main themes for having sex in a committed relationship.

Answer 43

1) Emotional- sex equals love and commitment
2) Physical- physical pleasure and attractiveness
3) Pragmatic- goal attainment or accomplishing objectives.
4) Insecurity- boosts self-esteem or keep partner’s interest.

Question 44

What is infidelity, and who is more likely to commit it?

Answer 44

Having sex with an outside partner that is not agreed upon by relationship partners. Men are more likely to cheat than women.