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Environmental Studies 502 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the 1970 U.S. Clean Air Act?

A

Air quality criteria documents (books) that provide a summary of what is known about:
1. Sulfur oxides
2. Particulates
3. Oxidants
4. Carbon monoxide
5. Hydrocarbons (VOCs)
6. Nitrogen oxides

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2
Q

What was Einstein’s involvement with nuclear weapons?

A

Albert Einstein signed a letter to President Roosevelt alerting him to the terrible potential of weaponizing nuclear reactions

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3
Q

What was the Manhattan Project?

A

Located in Los Alamos, NM, confidential U.S. project aimed at developing an atomic bomb; most funding went to build factories that could produce the materials needed to make the bombs

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4
Q

Why is an atomic bomb so much more powerful than a TNT bomb?

A
  1. The amount of heat and light released is 1000 times greater
  2. Invisible, penetrating and harmful radiation
  3. Radioactive fallout remains and continues to damage living things for a long period of time
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5
Q

4 types of radiation that typically accompany nuclear weapon detonation

A
  1. Alpha particles
  2. Beta particles
  3. Gamma rays
  4. Neutrons
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6
Q

What is nuclear fallout, and how long does it take to exert its effects?

A

radioactive fragments which stick to air particles or dirt that is sucked up mushroom stem

  • 80% falls back down in first day
  • 90% falls back down in first week
  • 10% lasts weeks to years
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7
Q

How is the electromagnetic pulse of nuclear weapons generated, and what are its effects?

A

How it works: Gamma rays ionize air, creating electrons, and electrons create large currents in the air

Effects: Currents are picked up by power lines, and power surges shut down grid and destroy attached electrical devices; e.g., 1.4Mton airburst in 1962 knocked out lights in Hawaii over 1000 miles away

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8
Q

What are the general effects of nuclear weapons on health?

A
  1. Most of the lasting effects are due to radiation, so are odorless and colorless
  2. Cancers can take 20 or more years to develop
  3. A single bomb can kill 100,000 people and destroy an entire city
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9
Q

What are fission weapons, and how do they work?

A

Fission releases energy in elements heavier than Iron. Bombarding U or Pu with neutrons, they split into fragments, releasing energy.

These are traditional “A” bombs.

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10
Q

How does critical mass lead to nuclear chain reactions?

A

When a large enough mass of either U or Pu is assembled, a self-sustaining chain reaction results after the first fission is produced; “critical” mass = minimum mass

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11
Q

What was the first detonation of an “A” bomb?

A

Trinity - Gadget (7/16/1945) at the Alamagordo test range in New Mexico

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12
Q

What are the characteristics of an “A” bomb?

A

Fission bomb that uses >90% Uranium; neutrons are reflected back into Uranium

Uses initial explosive device to trigger

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13
Q

What was the “Fat Man” style of A-bomb?

A

High explosives arranged to form an imploding shock wave which compresses the fissile material to supercriticality; burst of neutrons from generator is timed for moment of maximum compression

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14
Q

What are fusion weapons?

A

Elements lighter than Iron release energy when combined, such as Hydrogen, Deuterium, Tritium, and Lithium; these are thermonuclear reactions that also occur inside the sun

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15
Q

What is the “secret” of the H-bomb?

A

At the high temperatures of the fission bomb, 80% or more of the energy exists as soft x-rays…the x-rays heat a polystyrene channel, causing plasma which can compress and ignite the second (fusion) stage before the expanding primary stage disrupts it

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16
Q

How do hydrogen bombs work?

A

They typically use two stages, a fission stage and a fusion stage; more or less, it is a fission bomb that is “boosted” by hydrogen gas, making the fission more powerful

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17
Q

How big are nuclear weapons?

A

1 kTon = 2,000,000 pounds of TNT equivalent; today’s warhead is 100-200 kTons, and 2 pounds of U makes 20 kTons

Largest underground burst = 4.5 Mtons
Largest airburst = 58 Mtons

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18
Q

Who has nuclear weapons?

A

Many countries, but the US and Russia have the most by far

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19
Q

Is EMF from cellphones harmful?

A

Truly uncertain as to health effects; Cheshire Cat Effect - often symbolizes the idea of something being present yet intangible or elusive

However, there is considerable evidence concerning EMF (in general) and childhood leukemia

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20
Q

electric fields vs. magnetic fields

A

Electric fields:
1. Measured in volts per meter
2. Easily shielded
3. Charges moving from positive to negative terminal (produced by voltage)

Magnetic fields:
1. Measured in gauss (G) or tesla (T)
2. Not easily shielded
3. Fields result from movement of charges; defined by frequency of charge movement (produced by current)

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21
Q

frequency vs. wavelength

A

Frequency is # of cycles/second (Hertz), and 1 cycle = 1 wavelength

As frequency increases, wavelength decreases.

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22
Q

What is stray voltage?

A

Improper grounding causing currents to flow through metal objects in house or barn; not an electric or magnetic field

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23
Q

How does increasing distance from source affect electric and magnetic field strength?

A

Increasing distance from source = decreasing EF and MF levels

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24
Q

4 primary sources of electric and magnetic fields

A
  1. Household appliances/in-home wiring
  2. Power lines
  3. Radio/TV transmitters/cell phones
  4. Earth
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25
Q

What did the childhood cancer residential studies of EMF reveal?

A

Early Studies (1979, 1988):
- In Denver, increased leukemia, brain cancer, and lymphoma associated with EMFs

More Recent Studies (1996-2006):
- 16 NA, Europe, Australia, and Japan studies found increase in leukemia only

However, there are many issues with these studies, such as weak correlations, correlation between other variables, inadequate controls, etc.

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26
Q

How have electrical blankets changed?

A

They used to have significantly higher magnetic field levels than they do now; new blankets are “low magnetic field”

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27
Q

What did the adult cancer residential studies of EMF reveal?

A
  • 4 leukemia studies, only 1 showed small risk
  • 4 brain tumor studies, none showed association
  • 9 breast cancer studies, only 1 showed small risk
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28
Q

What did the adult occupational studies of EMF reveal?

A
  • 50/50 results on whether electrical occupations exhibit association with leukemia and brain tumors
  • 19 male breast cancer studies, 4 showed significantly increased risk
  • 16 female breast cancer studies, 3 showed significantly increased risk
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29
Q

What are the adverse effects of radiofrequency (RF) exposure?

A

Known:
- whole or partial body heating

Suspected:
- cancer
- cardiovascular disease
- adverse reproductive outcomes
- cataracts

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30
Q

Is radiofrequency (RF) exposure linked to cancer in occupational studies?

A

Results inconsistent, the few excesses are linked with exposures other than RF and/or methodological shortcomings

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31
Q

Is exposure to Wi-Fi associated with negative health effects?

A

No, conclusion was that RF exposures were well below recommended maximum levels and that there was “no reason why Wi-Fi should not continue to be used in schools and in other places”

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32
Q

What is the common factor of illnesses associated with EMFs?

A

Disruption of melatonin

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33
Q

What are the effects of EMFs on animals?

A

Generally no effects observed across a variety of studies; all published studies negative for cancer association

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34
Q

What was the IARC evaluation of Extremely Low Frequencies (ELFs)?

A

ELF magnetic fields classified as Group 2B “Possibly Carcinogenic” based on limited human data and inadequate animal data

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35
Q

What are the effects of reduced levels of melatonin, and why is this important with regard to EMF?

A

Reduced levels of melatonin are associated with (i) increased cancer risk in animals and in humans, (ii) with depression and possibly miscarriage.

This is significant because disruption (reduction) of melatonin is the common factor of illnesses associated with EMFs.

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36
Q

What is the Melatonin Hypothesis?

A

Exposure to light at night or MFs suppresses nocturnal melatonin leading to increased risk of breast cancer.

For EMFs, the Melatonin Hypothesis has been extended to Childhood Leukemia - melatonin is highly protective of oxidative damage to the human haemopoietic system.

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37
Q

What is the most significant health concern of EMF?

A

There is considerable evidence concerning EMF and childhood leukemia, and perhaps other endpoints in children and adults

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38
Q

Why is there a concern about cell phones and brain cancer?

A

Interest in the media and potential exposure to RF; some studies report association between brain tumors and heavy (not regular) cell phone use

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39
Q

What is a glioma?

A

a general term for a group of tumors that start in glial cells; about 4 in 10 of all brain tumors are gliomas, and 8 in 10 of malignant brain tumors are gliomas

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40
Q

What is the chance of someone developing a malignant tumor of the brain or spinal cord?

A

Less than 1%

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41
Q

5 risk factors for primary brain tumors

A
  1. Genetic risk
  2. Radiation to the head
  3. HIV
  4. Smoking
  5. Toxins
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42
Q

Where are cell phones on the electromagnetic spectrum?

A
  1. Digital phones are microwaves (up to 1900 MHz)
  2. Early analog phones are radiowaves (800-900 MHz)
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43
Q

3 reasons we should not be concerned about biological effects of radiofrequency radiation from cell phones?

A
  1. Energy of a RF wave from a phone is billions of times lower than the energy of an x-ray photon
  2. RF radiation is insufficiently energetic to break molecular bonds
  3. No consistent experimental evidence of carcinogenicity or genotoxicity

Should only be concerned with heavy use, according to the CERENAT, Interphone, and Million Women Studies.

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44
Q

What was the CERENAT 2013 study of cell phones and tumors?

A

Case-control study that found no association between regular mobile phone use and gliomas and meningiomas, but positive association with heavy users and gliomas

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45
Q

What was the Interphone Study?

A

Decade-long study overseen by the WHO that “appears” to have found a link between heavy usage of cellphones and brain cancer

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46
Q

What is conventional vs. unconventional natural gas?

A

Formed by organic matter (marine organisms) trapped in sedimentary rocks.

“Conventional” natural gas collects in porous rock (sandstone) domes.

“Unconventional” natural gas remains trapped in pores in tighter rocks (shale).

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47
Q

What is fracking?

A

Short for “hydrofracturing,” technique for increasing oil production from worked-out oil wells, but a new technique for obtaining methane (natural gas)

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48
Q

What is hydraulic fracturing?

A

Fracking technique for extracting natural gas from “tight” rock structures deep below the surface. Involves:
- Drilling a well deep into the earth
- Injecting 500,000 gallons of fluid (99% water plus sand and chemicals) to fracture shale and extract natural gas

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49
Q

How does fracking work?

A

A well is drilled (can be bored vertically or horizontally) and water laced with chemicals is pumped down to fracture the shale and release gas, which can be pumped back up

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50
Q

What is shale?

A

Tight rocks that contain natural gas; targeted in fracking

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51
Q

What are the environmental problems with fracking?

A
  1. Lengthy, extensive, lots of equipment/fluid necessary
  2. Methane releases major problem - tap water lighting on fire
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52
Q

What is the primary health concern of fracking workers?

A

Aside from “typical” industrial injuries, silica sand

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53
Q

How does fracking affect water?

A

Surface water:
1. Exposure: fish/game consumption, air, and farm animals
2. Fracking chemicals/flowback water
3. Potential for spills
4. Waste water disposal

Ground water:
1. Exposure: Private drinking water wells
2. Fracking chemicals
3. NORM (Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials) and heavy metals
4. Chemical interactions

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54
Q

What is the relationship between fracking and earthquakes?

A

A study found that wastewater from gas wells caused earthquakes

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55
Q

What Wisconsin lacks in shale, is compensated by…

A

Frack sand (silica sand); commonly mined in Wisconsin

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56
Q

2 mechanisms of silica toxicity

A
  1. Obstructive airway disease
  2. Generation of ROS (causes cancer)
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57
Q

What is silicosis?

A

chronic, progressive inflammatory disease that causes scarring of the lung as a result of silica exposure

Silicosis is the most important occupational disease.

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58
Q

How much silica are frac workers exposed to?

A

NIOSH study found that 47% showed exposures greater than the calculated OSHA PEL, and 79% showed exposures greater than the NIOSH REL.

Some samples were 10 or more times the PEL and REL.

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59
Q

Why is air quality a concern with fracking?

A
  1. Exposure: inhaled by workers, neighbors, and regional communities
  2. Diesel engines from vehicles and equipment
  3. Emissions from wells
  4. Evaporations from storage ponds
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60
Q

3 disasters/accidents associated with fracking

A
  1. Flooding may wash chemicals into water/soil
  2. Earthquakes from injection wells
  3. Explosions/spills may cause injury or contaminate environment
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61
Q

5 effects of fracking on community health

A
  1. Noise/light pollution
  2. Stress and mental health
  3. Population change (workers)
  4. Impacts on health services (disaster response, etc.)
  5. Increased housing costs/demand
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62
Q

5 challenges of discussing fracking

A
  1. Polarized
  2. Cost/benefit ratio
  3. Multidisciplinary
  4. Uncertainty and conflicting information
  5. “People listen to people who agree with them”
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63
Q

5 motor vehicle pollutants of concern

A
  1. Ultrafine Particles (UFP)
  2. Black carbon (BC)
  3. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
  4. Carbon monoxide (CO)
  5. Particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PPAH)
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64
Q

What are ultrafine particles (UFP), and how are they formed?

A

Particles with a diameter of 0.005 to 0.1 microns, formed by the condensation of hot vapors in tailpipe emission; can grow/shrink in size

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65
Q

What is the “spectrum of concern” with regard to particles?

A

Smaller particles have greatest health impacts, and the number of particles appears to be more important than mass

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66
Q

What is black carbon or “soot carbon,” and how is it formed?

A

Type of PM, impure form of elemental carbon with graphite-like structure; product of incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass

Black carbon is the “runner-up” to CO2 in emissions resulting in global climate change

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67
Q

What are nitrogen oxides (NOx), and how are they formed?

A

Compounds containing nitrogen and oxygen; result of combustion processes, particularly at high heat

Contributor to ozone air pollution

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68
Q

What are particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PPAH), and how are they formed?

A

Compounds made up of 3 or more benzene rings; formed by incomplete combustion of organic materials, such as wood or fossil fuels

Benzene is a known human carcinogen and benzo-a-pyrene most studied

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69
Q

What is carbon monoxide, how is it formed, and why is it dangerous?

A

Colorless, tasteless, odorless, nonirritating, flammable, and poisonous gas; forms as a result of incomplete combustion of fuel

Dangerous because it is a silent killer, and because it enters bloodstream through lungs and forms carboxyhemoglobin, which inhibits the blood’s capacity to carry oxygen

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70
Q

Why do we not need to measure EVERY motor vehicle pollutant?

A

Because of their common source - vehicle emissions - UFP, NOx, black carbon, and CO are highly correlated

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71
Q

4 adverse birth outcomes that are associated with roadway pollution

A
  1. Low birth weight and reduced head circumference
  2. Increased risk of wheeze and probable asthma
  3. Elevated stable chromosomal aberrations in umbilical cord blood lymphocytes, predictive of long-term cancer
  4. Lower mental development scores
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72
Q

What are the cardiovascular effects of roadway pollution?

A

Heart attack and 85% increase in prevalence of coronary heart disease associated with increased traffic near home and proximity to roadways

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73
Q

What is the key point with regard to roadway pollutants?

A

Proximity is key: Much higher exposures to traffic-related air pollutants occur within 30 meters as compared to >200 meters

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74
Q

2 pollutants of concern NOT influenced by roadway proximity

A
  1. PM2.5 and PM10
  2. Benzene
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75
Q

5 variables to consider in studying near-highway pollutants

A
  1. Type of highway
  2. Types and amounts of vehicles using highways
  3. Driving conditions
  4. Fuel chemistry
  5. Meteorology (rain)
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76
Q

What are the health effects of road traffic noise?

A

Air pollution and road traffic noise can increase the risk of heart failure, and former smokers or those with hypertension may be most suceptible to the adverse effects

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77
Q

What is the relationship between air pollution exposure and autism?

A

There is an association between air pollution exposure, cognitive and adaptive function, and ASD severity among children with autism.

Also, might be a tie between in-utero exposure to near-roadway air pollution and ASD in children.

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78
Q

What is the relationship between air pollution and obesity?

A

Air pollution might be an “obesogen,” meaning it is associated with obesity

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79
Q

What is the relationship between traffic-related air pollution and neurodegenerative disorders?

A

Traffic-related air pollution is neurotoxic and may be linked to neurodegenerative diseases

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80
Q

How has the acreage burned in wildfires trended over time?

A

There has been a substantial increase in the yearly quantity of acres burned in wildfires since 1985

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81
Q

What are the predictions for future wildfire risk?

A
  • Up to 55% increase by 2050
  • Up to 128% increase by 2099, with estimated burned area increase of 59% to 169%
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82
Q

How does climate change contribute to wildfire risk?

A
  1. Landscape is drier
  2. Temperatures increase
  3. Snow melts sooner
  4. More extreme weather patterns
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83
Q

What percentage of wildfires are manmade?

A

Over 90%, and many are preventable

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84
Q

5 primary and 2 secondary air pollutants of wildfires

A

Primary air pollutants:
1. PM
2. CO
3. NO2
4. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
5. VOCs

Secondary air pollutants:
1. PM
2. Ozone

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85
Q

7 pollutants of concern when vehicles and buildings burn

A
  1. HCN
  2. HCl
  3. Phosgene
  4. Metals
  5. Toluene
  6. Styrene
  7. Dioxins
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86
Q

What dictates the composition of wildfire smoke?

A

Composition of smoke depends on the fuel type (e.g., type of tree), the temperature of the fire, and the wind conditions

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87
Q

Why is wood smoke (from wildfires) so dangerous?

A

Contains many of the same toxic and carcinogenic substances as cigarette smoke, including benzene, benzo(a)pyrene, and dibenz(a,h)anthracene

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88
Q

How does smoking equate to air quality index (AQI)?

A

3 cigarettes/day is about equivalent to an AQI of 200

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89
Q

What type of PM is in wildfire smoke?

A

Over 80% is less than 2.5, making it especially dangerous

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90
Q

Where in the body is PM deposited based on size?

A

> 10 microns: nose and mouth (removed)

5-10 microns: upper respiratory tract

1-5 microns: deeper in the lungs, lower respiratory tract

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91
Q

How does PM2.5 exposure compare to smoking cigarettes?

A

One cigarette/day is the rough equivalent of a PM2.5 level of 22 micrograms/cubic meter

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92
Q

Does PM2.5 cause death?

A

Yes, PM2.5 causes 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide/year.

Air pollution as a whole causes 9 million premature deaths worldwide/year.

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93
Q

What country faces the highest loss in life expectancy as a result of PM2.5?

A

Bangladesh, 1.87 years of life lost due to PM2.5

However, due to population, China’s air quality effects the most people in any single country

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94
Q

3 primary respiratory effects of wildfires

A

Due to PM2.5 from wildfire smoke:
1. Asthma exacerbations
2. COPD
3. Bronchitis and pneumonia

All inflammation-related effects

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95
Q

What is the cardiovascular effect of wildfires?

A

Due to PM2.5 from wildfire smoke, increased cardiovascular (ischemic heart disease, heart failure, etc.) and cerebrovascular (stroke) ER visits

These are inflammation-related effects

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96
Q

What is the mechanism of the cardiovascular effects of wildfires?

A

Increased systemic inflammation, oxidative stress and coagulation through PM2.5 mediated changes in ANS

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97
Q

How much did the California wildfires impact the risk of heart problems?

A

Risk of heart problems increased by 42%, with the greatest risk among adults aged >65 years

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98
Q

What populations are at risk due to wildfires?

A
  1. Young children
  2. Elderly
  3. Those with pre-existing respiratory and cardiovascular disorders
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99
Q

What are the effects of wildfires on asthma?

A

Wildfires can severely exacerbate existing asthma, noted by an increase in asthma-related ER visits

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100
Q

How do wildfires impact the health of firefighters?

A

Respiratory function is impacted, and biomarkers show measures of oxidative stress

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101
Q

3 studies of the health impacts of wildfires on animals

A
  1. Orangutans exposed to wildfire has increased rest, decreased travel and ketones that suggested an altered energy expenditure related to the immune system
  2. Rhesus Monkeys exposed to wildfires as babies showed immune dysregulation and decreased lung function
  3. Mice were exposed to coarse or fine wildfire PM, showing neutrophilic inflammation and decreased macrophages in bronchial lavage
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102
Q

Is there a safe distance from a wildfire?

A

No…
- Closing windows or using filters does not help
- N95 protects against PM but not hazardous gases

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103
Q

What is the “goalpost” of climate change?

A

+1.5 degrees C, but we are headed towards +2.7

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104
Q

What percentage of people globally breathe unhealthy air?

A

90-95% of people, as there is no safe level of air pollution

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105
Q

How many deaths/year is indoor and outdoor air pollution responsible for?

A

7 million deaths/year

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106
Q

How does temperature affect the formation of ozone?

A

Higher temperatures favor the chemical formation of ground-level ozone, and natural emissions of precursors are elevated in warmer weather

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107
Q

What conditions lead to higher concentrations of PM2.5?

A

stagnant air + less frequent precipitation = increased PM2.5

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108
Q

How is ozone formed?

A

UV + NOx + VOCs = Ozone

Higher temperatures favor the formation of ground-level ozone

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109
Q

How does seasonality affect ground-level ozone?

A

Ground-level ozone is much higher in the summer due to increased temperatures; e.g., little to no ozone in February but a substantial amount in June

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110
Q

Why are smaller particles more dangerous to human health?

A
  1. Smaller particles penetrate deeper in the lungs
  2. The body’s defense mechanisms are inept against smaller particles
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111
Q

What is the relationship between electricity use during summer and air pollution?

A

Increased demand for electricity during warmer summers worsens air pollution; cooling contributes to air pollution

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112
Q

Where has wildfire smoke pollution most significantly increased in the U.S. over the past decade?

A

California

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113
Q

How do wildfires contribute to lead exposure?

A

Toxic metals such as lead are also released by wildfires, as fire burns things that emit these metals

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114
Q

Why is PM2.5 from fires more dangerous than PM2.5 from other sources?

A

Wildfire-specific PM2.5 was found to be ~10 times more harmful to children’s respiratory health than PM2.5 from other sources.

This is likely due to the burning of other toxic metals by wildfires.

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115
Q

Are wildfires just a Western U.S. problem?

A

No, although the majority of large fires occur in the western U.S., we find the majority of mortality and asthma morbidity attributable to smoke PM2.5 occurs outside the West

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116
Q

Has the Clean Air Act been successful?

A

Yes, it is an epidemiology success story, as it has decreased the prevalence of many pollutants

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117
Q

What is the “Exceptional Events Rule?”

A

loophole in the Clean Air Act related to wildfire emissions

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118
Q

Why are wildfires exceptionally concerning with regard to air pollution progress?

A

Wildfire smoke has been erasing years of progress toward cleaning America’s air, even reversing air quality improvements

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119
Q

How many people live in areas that exceed air quality standards?

A

Ozone: 120 million

PM2.5: 70 million

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120
Q

2 mechanisms of climate change impacts on health

A
  1. Direct - Poor Climate/Air Quality directly increases Health Risks
  2. Indirect - Poor Climate/Air Quality increases electricity demand, which in turn further worsens Climate/Air Quality, leading to health risks
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121
Q

How do temperature projections for 2069 compare to 2007?

A

The frequency of hotter summer days is expected to be substantially higher in 2069

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122
Q

Why is proximity to power plants important?

A

Proximity to power plants can influence health impacts of pollution

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123
Q

How is summer ozone expected to change over time?

A

Future summer ozone projected to be greater than current summer ozone; estimated summer ozone increase is +15.6 parts per billion

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124
Q

How is summer PM2.5 expected to change over time?

A

Future summer PM2.5 projected to be greater than current PM2.5; estimated summer PM2.5 increase is +3.8 micrograms/cubic meter daily

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125
Q

How does air conditioning affect PM2.5 levels?

A

Ambient PM2.5 has increased more due to air conditioning than to climate change alone

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126
Q

How does air pollution relate to COVID-19?

A

Increased air pollution = worsened COVID-19 severity

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127
Q

What are the consequences of a 3-4 degrees C rise in temperature?

A
  1. Sea levels rise
  2. Weather extremes
  3. Disease
  4. Reduced food/water supply
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128
Q

Why is climate change an economic concern?

A

Widespread economic burden relating to deaths, medical care, wages, medications, etc.

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129
Q

What is the “price tag” of climate change health effects, and who pays for these costs?

A

Estimated to be $10 billion; a disproportionate share of the illness-related costs are shouldered by Medicare and Medicaid patients

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130
Q

What is the hierarchy of risk management controls?

A
  1. Policy/Administration
  2. Engineering/Infrastructure
  3. Personal Protection

The higher in hierarchy for an intervention, the more people are generally protected.

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131
Q

How does air pollution contribute to DALYs?

A

Household air pollution from solid fuels and ambient particulate matter pollution both impact healthspan

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132
Q

Why is solid fuel use concerning?

A

In developing countries (places that aren’t electrified), majority of the population relies on solid fuels for cooking. This cooking often occurs indoors in confined spaces, exacerbating the issue.

Household air pollution from solid fuels is a major contributor to DALYs.

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133
Q

How do energy sources vary across incomes?

A

Lower incomes rely on wood burning, kerosene, etc. (“dirtier” sources), while higher incomes rely on electricity, natural gas, and renewables

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134
Q

Why is the time cost of collecting fuel a concern?

A

In developing nations, women frequently spend a significant amount of time/day gathering fuel

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135
Q

2 key indoor pollutants of concern

A
  1. PM
  2. Carbon monoxide
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136
Q

How does indoor PM2.5 compare to outdoor PM2.5?

A

Indoor PM2.5 constituted >10% of outdoor PM2.5 levels in regions housing 4.4 billion people

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137
Q

What is the outdoor PM burden of cooking with solid fuels?

A

Household cooking with solid fuels accounts for 12% of outdoor PM2.5; exposure to outdoor PM2.5 from cooking caused the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives and 10 million disability-adjusted life years globally

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138
Q

4 challenges in air pollution exposure assessments

A
  1. Fate of pollution - pollutants can form secondarily, making it harder to track
  2. Mixtures of pollutants (interactive effects) - not just PM2.5, but others
  3. Accumulation and removal of pollution - stagnant air = increased pollution, rain = decreased pollution
  4. Timing of exposure
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139
Q

How severe is the PM2.5 problem in developing countries?

A

Levels often ~1000x human limit due to “dirtier” energy sources and indoor cooking practices

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140
Q

Where in the world is pollution the worst?

A

India; it has the world’s five most populated cities, with PM2.5 and NO2 being a major concern

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141
Q

What is the “epicenter of the NO2 problem?”

A

Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka; PM2.5 and NO2 are both extremely high in this region

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142
Q

What are the WHO Ambient Air Quality Guidelines?

A

Like NAAQS, but global guidelines (not law); guidelines and interim targets for key pollutants, limits set to protect public health and the environment

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143
Q

2 primary challenges in addressing the air pollution problem on a global scale

A
  1. No international consensus on air pollution reduction targets and strategies
  2. Poor monitoring of air quality and health
144
Q

What is the social-ecological model?

A

model that emphasizes the interplay between individual, interpersonal, organizational, community, and public policy factors in shaping health outcomes

145
Q

What targeted air quality interventions are occurring in South Asia?

A

India: tackling emissions from vehicles

Nepal: cleaning up brick kilns

Pakistan: developing a coordinated national strategy

Bangladesh: joint action on air pollution and climate

146
Q

How significant of an impact can Mitigation & Adaption actions have compared to a Business-As-Usual scenario?

A

Mitigation & Adaptation actions result in 1,414 fewer deaths in 2030 compared to a Business-As-Usual scenario

147
Q

What are Information, Education, and Communication (IEC) materials?

A

Materials developed in India with the focus of public outreach; e.g., infographics, public signs displaying air quality, school flag program (flag in front of school indicates AQI)

148
Q

Is the cost of clean air worth it from a health perspective?

A

Clean air yields health benefits that exceed costs by more than 30 to 1

149
Q

What are the health effects of NO2?

A

Increased likelihood of respiratory problems; NO2 inflames the lining of the lungs, and it can reduce immunity to lung infections, causing problems such as wheezing, coughing, colds, flu, and bronchitis

150
Q

What is exhaust gas recirculation?

A

In 1973, U.S. car engines had a system that routes an amount of exhaust into the intake tract. Exhaust neither burns nor combusts, so it dilutes the air/fuel to reduce combustion temperatures. This, in turn, reduces the formation of NO2.

151
Q

What is a catalytic converter?

A

A device in the exhaust pipe that converts hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide into less harmful gases by using a combination of platinum, palladium, and rhodium as catalysts; lead ruins these catalysts, so unleaded gasoline necessary

2-way converters were common until 1980s, then 3-way converters replaced them, which also reduce NOx

152
Q

What was most surprising about the study of personal exposure to respirable particles?

A

Pollutant concentration in a well-ventilated kitchen was higher than any other location; more generally, indoor air pollution was higher than outdoor air pollution

This is because of high indoor NO2 levels.

153
Q

How does NO2 compare indoor vs. outdoor?

A

NO2 levels indoor are nearly identical to or even higher than NO2 levels outdoor, a surprise to many at the time of the research publication; also, cooking with gas stove indoor led to greater NO2 concentration than cooking with electric stove indoor

154
Q

What did NO2 diffusion tubes in Portage, WI reveal?

A

Outdoor kitchen and electric kitchen NO2 levels were very low, but liquid propane and natural gas kitchens were very high

155
Q

What is the Sick Building Syndrome (SBS)?

A

Group of nonspecific symptoms (eye, nose, throat irritation, headache, fatigue, nausea) associated with occupancy of a “sick” building; different from Building Related Illness (BRI), which is associated with a specific recognized disease

Ventilation is key in “sick” buildings.

156
Q

Why is ventilation/fresh air exchange so important?

A

Ventilation is key in ameliorating “sick” buildings; fresh air exchange crucial to wellbeing due to its effects in reducing pollutant concentration

Low ventilation = high pollutant concentration
High ventilation = low pollutant concentration

157
Q

What did time budget diaries reveal?

A
  1. Average American worker spends 40 min outdoor/day
  2. Average American houseperson spends 20 min outdoor/day

Americans spend little time outdoors, so indoor air quality is very important. If not well ventilated, many are exposed to indoor air pollution.

158
Q

What is found in house dust?

A
  1. Microbes
  2. Lead
  3. Asbestos
  4. Mites/mite feces
  5. Pollen
  6. Pet hair
  7. Molds
  8. Furniture fibers
  9. Many other organic and inorganic debris

Bottom line is that house dust is an often overlooked concern in the home.

159
Q

4 asbestos related diseases

A
  1. Asbestosis
  2. Lung cancer
  3. Mesothelioma
  4. Tumors

Crucial to indoor air pollution because house dust and the home in general can be a common source of asbestos.

160
Q

Where is the greatest concentration of carbon monoxide in the home?

A

The garage; unsurprising, as CO is emitted from the tailpipes of cars

Gas-fired space heaters a concern for years, but eventually banned

161
Q

How much of the atmosphere is composed of carbon monoxide?

A

<0.001%

162
Q

What is the pathophysiology of carbon monoxide?

A

Hemoglobin carries oxygen and CO2. Carbon monoxide binds very tightly to hemoglobin, making it so oxygen and CO2 can no longer be carried. This is known as blood carboxyhaemoglobin.

The affinity of hemoglobin for CO is 200-250x the affinity for O2, so CO greatly outcompetes O2.

163
Q

How does blood carboxyhaemoglobin (effect of CO) differ between smokers and nonsmokers?

A

Nonsmokers: 1-3%
Smokers: 10-15%

164
Q

How is carbon monoxide poisoning treated?

A

Because CO poisoning is caused by lack of oxygen to the brain, simply need to administer oxygen

165
Q

How many people are affected by carbon monoxide poisoning?

A

Is a leading cause of poisoning deaths in industrialized countries, and may be responsible for half of all poisonings worldwide

166
Q

What are most carbon monoxide poisoning accidental deaths caused by?

A

House fires, automobile exhaust, heating systems, appliances, etc.

167
Q

4 factors that increase accidental CO deaths

A
  1. Patient >65 years of age
  2. Male
  3. Ethanol intoxication
  4. Deaths peak in winter due to use of heating systems and closed windows
168
Q

What measures are in place to prevent accidental CO poisoning deaths?

A
  1. Improved motor vehicle emission policies
  2. Use of catalytic converters
  3. Home CO detectors
169
Q

What are the symptoms associated with formaldehyde exposure?

A

Eye, nose, throat irritation, headache, cough, nausea, etc.

One study found that it causes nose cancer in rats.

170
Q

How is building material age related to formaldehyde exposure?

A

The younger the building, the higher the median formaldehyde concentration

171
Q

Is formaldehyde exposure common?

A

In mobile homes, yes, as it is in a large number of building materials; more common at low concentrations, but can occassionally be found at higher levels

However, it is now banned.

172
Q

Is indoor air pollution worse than outdoor?

A

Hard to say, but indoor air pollution is a significant, often overlooked concern. Many harmful carcinogens can be found indoors, often in greater concentration than outdoors. House dust, NO2, aerosols, and radon are some of the major concerns.

173
Q

What is the relationship between indoor air pollution and radon?

A

Radon can be found in some indoor settings, namely basements

174
Q

What are the sources of exposure to formaldehyde?

A

A large number of materials, including insulation, clothes, etc. However, formaldehyde is banned now.

175
Q

Why is the bathroom an “exposure chamber” of sorts?

A

Contains many products that contribute to harmful indoor air pollution

176
Q

Who is Stanley Watras?

A

Man who worked at nuclear plant who set off radon monitor upon entering (not exiting) the plant; it was discovered that he had a large concentration of radon built up in his basement, invoking public concern for radon exposure

177
Q

What is the mechanism by which polonium affects humans?

A

Polonium attaches to aerosols, which we inhale. Aerosols containing polonium get trapped in the mucosal lining of the lung.

178
Q

What are the health hazards of radon progeny?

A

Lung cancer is the only known health effect from airborne radon

179
Q

What is significant about uranium miners and radon?

A

Radon risks are estimated by studying uranium miners, as radon is an occupational hazard for these workers; radon and smoking are multiplicative for lung cancer

180
Q

How does radon get into basements, and how can this problem be solved?

A

Radon gas enters homes through pressure differences underground.

To reverse the flow, reduce the pressure underneath the house - this is known as sub-slab depressurization.

181
Q

How is COVID-19 spread?

A

Primary mechanism is droplet transmission, but now we believe that airborne transmission exists; one thing outbreak settings have in common is low rates of air exchange, meaning air is recirculated and shared by large numbers of people

182
Q

Can respiratory transmission in congregated settings be reduced by improving ventilation?

A

Industry standards for ventilation are set for energy efficiency, not respiratory health. Most ventilation rates are too low to prevent infections.

183
Q

Who is most impacted by carbon monoxide exposure?

A

The fetus; fetal hemoglobin has a much greater affinity for CO than adult hemoglobin. Pregnant mothers may exhibit mild to moderate symptoms, but the fetus may have devastating outcomes.

184
Q

Why is it hard to measure carbon monoxide concentrations after death?

A

COHb not routinely measured in autopsy specimens, and post-mortem measurements often unreliable

185
Q

Truths and Myths: Which is not an asthma trigger? Dust mites, cockroaches, bed bugs, mold

A

Bed bugs

186
Q

True or false? You will “grow out” of asthma.

A

False, asthma is a chronic condition

187
Q

True or false? You are likely to develop asthma if someone in your family has it.

A

True, your chance of having asthma increases if one or both of your parents has it

188
Q

True or false? Moving to a different location, such as the desert, can cure asthma.

A

False, it might temporarily help, but after a few years, symptoms return for many people

189
Q

True or false? People with asthma should not exercise.

A

False, swimming is an optimal exercise for those with asthma.

190
Q

True or false? Medications used to treat asthma, such as inhaled steroids, are habit-forming.

A

False

191
Q

Where does Madison rank in terms of asthma-friendliness?

A

97 out of 100 on list of asthma capitals, making it one of the best places for those with asthma

192
Q

3 ways asthma narrows airways

A
  1. Inflammation and swelling
  2. Production of thick mucus
  3. Bronchoconstriction
193
Q

4 main signs of asthma

A
  1. Cough at night or after exercise
  2. Wheezing
  3. Shortness of breah
  4. Chest tightness
194
Q

5 host risk factors of asthma

A
  1. Allergy and atopy
  2. Family history of asthma or allergy
  3. Smaller airways at birth
  4. Low birth weight
  5. Male
195
Q

Do asthma symptoms ever go away?

A

In early adolescence, symptoms may go away, but 2/3 of children with asthma have symptoms through puberty and adulthood; recurrence of symptoms in early adulthood is common

196
Q

allergen vs. irritant

A

Allergen:
- Substance that causes an allergic reaction
- Exposure in a sensitive person causes symptoms
- Immune mediated
- Not usually dose dependent

Irritant:
- Substance that irritates the lungs and causes symptoms
- Exposure causes increased symptoms or limits airflow
- Not immune mediated
- Dose dependent

Allergen examples:
- Tree, grass, or weed pollen
- Mites
- Mold

Irritant examples:
- Tobacco smoke
- Ozone
- Exhaust fumes

197
Q

Why are outdoor wood boilers (OWBs) problematic?

A

OWBs have significantly more emissions (PM2.5, PAHs) than other heating sources, and are a prominent asthma trigger

198
Q

2 types of work-related asthma

A
  1. Work-aggravated asthma - among those who have a history of preexisting asthma
  2. Occupational asthma - develops as a direct result of workplace exposure
199
Q

What are the high-risk jobs for work-related asthma?

A
  1. Firefighters - smoke
  2. Health care workers - latex, disinfectants, ETS
  3. Bakers, farmers, etc. - flour, grain, dust
  4. Veterinarians, animal handlers - animal proteins
  5. Pharmaceutical workers - drugs, enzymes
  6. Spray painters, foam workers - chemicals
  7. Forest workers, carpenters - wood dust
  8. Building and grounds maintenance workers - cleaning products, dust, pollen, mold
200
Q

What are the goals of asthma management (successful outcomes for those with asthma)?

A
  • Preventing symptoms and attacks during day and night
  • Maintaining normal activity levels, including exercise
  • Having normal or near-normal lung function
201
Q

What medications can be used for asthma?

A

Rescue (quick relief):
- Generally short acting beta-agonists

Long-term controllers:
- Taken daily, used to reduce inflammation
- Includes inhaled corticosteroids, long-acting beta2-agonists, leukotriene modifiers

Biologics:
- In severe asthma, used to reduce inflammation by targeting a specific antibody, molecule, or cell

202
Q

How prevalent is asthma in the U.S.?

A
  • 1 in 15 children have asthma, black children doubled risk
  • 1 in 12 adults have asthma
203
Q

What is the impact of asthma in the U.S.?

A
  • 1 in 4 children with asthma go to the ER yearly
  • 169,000 asthma-related hospitalizations
  • 1.8 million asthma-related ER visits
  • 10 people die from asthma every day
  • Black Americans are 2-3 times more likely to die from asthma
204
Q

In what ways is asthma disruptive in the U.S.?

A
  • 2 in 5 children with asthma miss at least 1 day of school each year
  • 1 in 3 adults with asthma miss at least 1 day of work
  • 1 in 2 adults and 2 in 5 children with asthma limit their daily activites
205
Q

How much does asthma cost the U.S. annually?

A

$82 billion/year

206
Q

How has asthma prevalence changed over time?

A

Since 1980, asthma prevalence has grown significantly. In 1980, 3.1% had asthma, but today, 7.7% have asthma.

207
Q

Who is most affected by asthma?

A

Indian Americans and Black Americans, as well as those in poverty

208
Q

How does asthma differ by sex over lifespan?

A

Males are slightly more likely to have asthma in childhood (2.1% vs. 1.8%), but in adulthood, females are much more likely to have asthma (9.4% vs. 4.6%)

209
Q

Has Wisconsin been successful in addressing asthma?

A

Significant Improvements:
- Reducing ED visit and hospitalization rates
- Access to asthma self-management education and medication therapy management

Slight Improvements:
- Number of schools with asthma action plans on file for all students with asthma

No Change:
- Racial and ethnic disparities in asthma prevalence, hospitalization rates, and mortality rates

210
Q

How does the prevalence of asthma in Wisconsin compare to the national average?

A

U.S. Overall: 9.9%
Wisconsin Overall: 10.9%
Wisconsin Adults: 15.7% lifetime prevalence, 10.9% current
Wisconsin Children: 10.2% lifetime prevalence, 6.7% current

211
Q

How does weight impact asthma prevalence in Wisconsin?

A

Obese and morbidly obese individuals have higher rates of asthma than not overweight and overweight individuals

212
Q

What percentage of asthma cases are controlled?

A

18% Very Poorly Controlled
43% Not Well-Controlled
39% Well-Controlled

Those with higher income are much more likely to have well-controlled asthma.

213
Q

Are people with asthma seeing their doctor regularly?

A

67% have seen their doctor about asthma in the last 12 months, but one third of asthmatics haven’t talked to their doctor about their asthma in over a year

214
Q

How have asthma hospitalizations trended over time?

A

In 2000, asthma hospitalizations were significantly more common than today (~5x more common)

Black Americans still much more likely, but gap has closed slightly

215
Q

What age undergoes the most hospital visits for asthma?

A

0-4 age range, for both hospitaliation rates and ED rates

216
Q

How have asthma mortality rates in Wisconsin trended over time?

A

Slight decrease/little change, but black people are almost 5x more likely to die from asthma than white people in WI

217
Q

3 possible reasons for the increase in asthma prevalence

A
  1. Are we too clean? Failure to develop balanced immune response
  2. Changes in diagnostic recognition/coding
  3. Changes in asthma risk factors or simultaneous changes in multiple risk factors
218
Q

What is the EXHALE strategy for asthma management?

A

E: Education on asthma self-management
X: X-tinguishing smoking and secondhand smoke
H: Home visits for trigger reduction and asthma self-management education
A: Achievement of guidelines-based medical management
L: Linkages and coordination of care across settings
E: Environmental policies or best practices to reduce asthma triggers

219
Q

What is anti-idling signage?

A

Signage that reminds drivers to turn off their engine if idling. These is in an effort to reduce emissions and prevent asthma exacerbations.

220
Q

What is the Wisconsin Asthma-Safe Homes Program?

A

Program to improve asthma outcomes and reduce disparities by providing:
- Asthma education home visits
- Durables to address home asthma triggers
- Home assessment and remediation services

221
Q

What is the CDC’s National Environmental Public Health Tracking Program?

A

Website that centralizes all data on a given topic (e.g., asthma, cancer, COPD, etc.), preventing users from having to access multiple databases to get the right data.

Contains surveillance briefs, county environmental health profiles, ideas for using data and taking action, etc.

222
Q

How does lead exposure impact IQ?

A

There is a noted decrease in IQ associated with exposure to lead; specifically, there is a 5-point downwad shift in IQ distribution (102 mean IQ in high lead, 107 mean IQ in low lead)

223
Q

Why was the lead paint industry particularly concerning?

A

Similar to tobacco and asbestos industries, lead paint industry pushed captivating ads with misleading information, helping to invoke lead problems within the nation; lead was advertised as “expensive” paint, with marketing even intertwining children

224
Q

8 primary sources and uses of lead

A
  1. Paint (until 1970)
  2. Gas (tetraethyl lead)
  3. Household/ceiling dust
  4. Soil
  5. Pesticides (lead arsenate)
  6. Cigarettes
  7. Ceramic glazes and toys
  8. Planes with propellers

But there are many more

225
Q

How has lead deposited itself in the environment?

A

One study found that a Greenland glacier had been accumulating lead over the years

226
Q

Is lead a NAAQS?

A

Lead companies continued to sue the EPA to prevent addition, but lead was added to the NAAQS in 1978. This caused an immediate decrease in lead consumed in gasoline, ambient air lead levels, and average blood lead levels.

227
Q

What is the EPA NAAQS for lead?

A

When added in 1978: 1.5 micrograms/cubic meter
2008: lowered to 0.15 micrograms/cubic meter

228
Q

How have lead use in paint and gasoline trended over time?

A

Originally, leaded paint was prominent and leaded gasoline was almost nonexistent. However, lead companies knew leaded paint would be banned, so they used it in gasoline as an alternative. Therefore, we saw a stark decrease in leaded paint and rapid increase in leaded gasoline.

229
Q

What is the exposure mechanism of lead in children?

A

In kids, normal hand-mouth activity and eating paint chips can cause harmful lead exposure; pica (excessive hand-mouth activity) exacerbates problem and is one of the worst risk factors

230
Q

How is lead absorbed by the body?

A

Lead goes down iron or calcium absorption pathway and is therefore stored in bones and teeth; this absorption is enhanced if diet is poor in iron or calcium

231
Q

How does lead absorption compare in children vs. adults?

A

Children absorb lead well orally (~50%), adults poorly (~10%). Children also have more hand to mouth activity, exacerbating this issue.

Lead can also be absorbed via inhalation, and tetraethyl lead (gas) can be absorbed via skin

232
Q

How is lead distributed in the body?

A

Goes down calcium/iron pathway, so stored in bones and teeth. Specifically:
- 95% in long bones
- 4% in brain, liver, kidneys
- 1% in blood
- Can also cross placenta and fetal blood-brain barrier

233
Q

What are the primary health effects of lead exposure?

A

Concentration related, IQ decreases and deliquency related to total dosage in childhood

These neurobehavioral, brain-related effects are what we are most worried about, especially in children

234
Q

How is lead removed from humans?

A

Chelation, which involves using succimer and pencillamine pills orally; EDTA can also be administered by IV in the hospital

235
Q

How is childhood lead exposure associated with learning?

A

Childhood lead exposure is associated with reading disability in young adulthood and a significantly greater likelihood of failure to complete high school. Also, newer study found that lead correlated with lower test scores in Milwaukee 4th graders.

236
Q

What is the mechanism by which lead damages the brain?

A

Lead disrupts the structural components of the blood-brain barrier by primary injury to astrocytes with secondary damage to the endothelial microvasculature

237
Q

Where in the brain does lead-induced damage occur?

A

Prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum

238
Q

How does lead affect the elderly?

A

Risk of dementia increases with lead burden, and the elderly have greater risk of accidental lead ingestion

239
Q

How is lead exposure associated with crime?

A

Studies found that lead exposure is correlated with increased rates of violent crime, including homicide; lead exposure is also a predictor of school suspension

240
Q

How has the CDC’s action level for blood lead in children changed over time?

A

Action level, meaning blood level of lead that is problematic, significantly decreased over the years, starting in the 1970s

241
Q

Is there a safe level of lead exposure?

A

No, there is no safe level of lead exposure

242
Q

How does lead exposure correlate with race?

A

Black people are much more likely to have higher blood lead levels, indicative of greater rates of exposure

243
Q

How does lead exposure correlate with sex?

A

Males generally more likely to have higher blood lead levels, especially as age increases, indicative of greater rates of exposure

244
Q

What happened in Flint, MI?

A

Government decided to use water from Flint River following contract termination to use water purchased from Detroit. This water was very corrosive and underwent no treatment, containing iron and lead.

245
Q

What is the greatest risk of lead exposure in children?

A

Old houses, largely due to the use of lead-based paint paired with the high hand-mouth activity and eating of paint chips seen in children

246
Q

Is lead exposure risk confined to just inside the home?

A

No, lead exposure outside the home can also be a problem; children play outside on soil near home foundation and face lead exposure

247
Q

What is the history of lead in Wisconsin?

A

Extensive history of lead mining in Wisconsin; in fact, Bucky Badger comes from lead mining

Moreover, there is much lead exposure in Milwaukee due to prevalence of old homes

248
Q

What is the Wisconsin Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program?

A

Program requiring mandatory lead testing in children and providing interventions for children with lead poisoning

249
Q

What is the epidemiology of the Wisconsin lead problem?

A

WI childhood lead poisoning prevalence is twice the national average (4x national average in Milwaukee), and 5% of children entering school have been poisoned; less than 1/3 of WI children at greatest risk of lead poisoning have been tested at ages 1 and 2

250
Q

How have lead poisoning rates trended over time?

A

Lead poisoning reduction is a top 10 public health success story, with lead blood levels decreasing yearly; in 1976-1980, mean blood Pb was ~14.9, but in 2012, mean blood Pb was <1.0

251
Q

How does renovation and remodeling (R&R study) contribute to lead poisoning in homes?

A

Thought that there might be a relationship between home R&R and children’s blood levels due to stirring up lead-tainted dust and paint. Study was conducted across Wisconsin, concluding that some paint removal techniques may create a potential lead contamination problem in homes with young children. Proper protocols must now be followed in accordance with the Home Repair & Renovation rule.

252
Q

What is the Milwaukee Window Specification?

A

Protocol in renovation and remodeling (R&R) for windowsills, as lead often comes from windowsills

253
Q

How have lead products been regulated?

A
  1. Lead-based paint banned in 1978
  2. Leaded gasoline phased out 1973-1978
  3. Lead pipe and solder banned 1986
  4. CPSC children’s product rule 2009
  5. Home Repair & Renovation rule 2010
254
Q

What is the relationship between baby food and lead poisoning?

A

Some baby foods contain lead, and children’s fruit pouches have been linked to lead poisoning

255
Q

Is lead exposure still a problem?

A

Despite being a top 10 public health success story, lead poisoning is still a big problem. 2.5% of U.S. kids still in unhealthy range, 5.5% in unhealthy range in Wisconsin; ~13 WI kids found with elevated Pb each day

256
Q

What is the primary mission of the Wisconsin Air Management Program?

A

To ensure NAAQS are attained and maintained through monitoring air quality

257
Q

What does an air quality monitoring station look like?

A

Meteorological tower with different inlets connected to instruments that report real-time data to the public on air quality conditions

258
Q

Why does Wisconsin DNR monitor the air?

A
  • To judge compliance with and/or progress made towards meeting NAAQS
  • To observe pollution trends
  • To alert the public to changing air quality
  • To provide a database for research
259
Q

6 criteria pollutants of Clean Air Act (NAAQS)

A
  1. Ozone
  2. PM
  3. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
  4. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
  5. Carbon monoxide
  6. Lead
260
Q

What do PM2.5 network trends reveal?

A

General design value decrease, but recent increases due to wildfire prevalence

261
Q

Where is the primary ozone problem area in Wisconsin?

A

Lake Michigan shoreline due to interstate transport

262
Q

How have ozone levels trended over time?

A

Measured ozone is decreasing, but not fast enough to keep up with design values

263
Q

What is the Chemical Speciation Network (CSN)?

A

Provides testing to determine the components of PM2.5; chemical analysis performed includes anions/cations, metals, and elemental/organic carbon

264
Q

What is BioWatch?

A

Deprtment of Homeland Security air sampling program that takes place in every major metropolitan city in the U.S.; each city has multiple sites, which consists of a portable sampling unit (PSU), that run continuous filter based samples

265
Q

How are sensors used for air monitoring?

A

Sensors from satellites, vehicles, or buildings can be used for gaining qualitative data and information, but they cannot be used for regulatory purposes; however, sensor work continues to be a priority at a state and federal level

266
Q

What is unique about VOCs relative to other Criteria Pollutants?

A

There is no established standard

267
Q

What is a settling chamber?

A

PM control method that uses gravity settling to reduce gas velocity; works for PM10 to PM50, and is low cost but has low collection efficiency

268
Q

What is a wet scrubber (PM)?

A

PM control method that uses a low pressure drop to generate wet waste; 70-90+% control, but inefficient for fine PM. It used to be common, but is an uncommon control today.

Contaminated gas enters scrubber, scrubbing fluid sprayed into gas flow, reacted fluid collects as wet waste and clean air escapes.

269
Q

What is a cyclone/multicyclone?

A

PM control method that uses centrifugal and inertial forces; 20-99% control depending on PM size, and is especially useful because it can filter PM2.5 and is low maintenance and low energy.

Literally spins dirty air, dirt falls to bottom, cleaner air leaves through top.

270
Q

What is Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)?

A

PM control method that uses collection plates with rapping hammers that knock off debris so it can be filtered; uses electric charge and attraction, and can have up to 99% efficiency. This was very popular in the 70s and 80s.

271
Q

What is a baghouse/fabric filter?

A

Most efficient PM control method (99+%) that is more or less a sophisticated vacuum cleaner; provides analysis of pressure drop to dictate filtration. This is the control of choice today.

272
Q

What is the best control for PM?

A

To not generate PM in the first place; i.e., source controls such as low sulfur distillate fuels, suppressants, enclosures, etc.

273
Q

How are NOx formed?

A

Formed by combustion at extremely high temperatures

274
Q

6 main PM control methods

A
  1. Settling chamber
  2. Wet scrubber
  3. Cyclone
  4. Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)
  5. Baghouse/fabric filter
  6. Source controls
275
Q

3 main NOx control methods

A
  1. Source reduction
    - Low NOx burners and flue gas recirculation
    - Combustion modifications
    - Water injection
  2. Non-catalytic controls
  3. Catalytic controls
276
Q

What are low NOx burners?

A

Form of NOx source control that reduces combustion temperature via improved fuel and air mixing; includes flue gas recirculation (FGR) and has up to 90% efficiency

277
Q

What is selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)?

A

NOx control method in which ammonia reacts with NOx at very high temperatures (1400+ F) to form nitrogen gas; requires less ammonia than SCR but is 40-70% efficient

278
Q

What is selective catalytic reduction (SCR)?

A

NOx control method in which ammonia + a catalyst react with NOx at lower temperatures (400-1000 F) to generate nitrogen gas; requires more ammonia than SNCR but is 60-95% efficient

279
Q

Why are catalytic converters frequently stolen?

A

They contain precious metals - palladium and platinum - as part of their filtration system

280
Q

3 main sulfur dioxide (SO2) control methods

A
  1. Source reduction
  2. Wet scrubbers
  3. Dry scrubbers

Very successful program, with over 70% reduction since 1975

281
Q

3 source reduction measures for sulfur dioxide (SO2)

A
  1. Low sulfur coal
  2. Use of natural gas
  3. Low sulfur diesel
282
Q

What is a wet scrubber (SO2)?

A

SO2 control method that converts SO2 to gypsum (a saleable product) via a lime + water injection; very expensive, but 90+% efficiency

283
Q

What is a dry scrubber (SO2)?

A

SO2 control method that uses towers or fluidized beds to convert SO2 to CaSO3 + CO2; very expensive, uses no/little water, and is the most poplar SO2 control…90+% efficiency

284
Q

What is an oxidation catalyst?

A

Primary carbon monoxide control method; in use at UW Charter street

285
Q

4 source reduction measures for VOCs

A
  1. Change organics (acetone)
  2. Water-based coatings/inks
  3. Improve transfer technology
  4. Higher solid coatings/inks
286
Q

5 transfer technology controls for VOCs

A
  1. Spray gun (30-60%)
  2. HVLP (65-75%)
  3. Electrostatic (65-75%)
  4. Powder (no VOC)
  5. Dip tanks (high efficiency)
287
Q

3 add-on controls for VOCs

A
  1. Catalytic incineration
  2. Thermal or thermal regenerative incineration
  3. Call it oxidation
288
Q

3 mobile source clean air programs

A
  1. Efficiency standards
  2. Clean diesel
  3. Engine emission requirements
289
Q

4 stationary source programs

A
  1. Permitting
  2. PSD program
  3. NSPS
  4. MACT/federal HAPs
    - interstate programs
    - non-attainment regulations
290
Q

What is the Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) program, and what are the 3 PSD categories?

A

Type of construction permitting that is designed to protect pristine air, with visibility the primary focus of protection. Applies to major sources by classifying areas:
- Class 1: areas around and including National Parks, wilderness areas, etc.
- Class 2: areas around National Forests and other public lands
- Class 3: areas to be protected up to secondary standards for SO2 and PM

Provides control technology evaluation and assesses Best Available Control Technology (BACT) with the goal of protecting the deterioration of air quality.

291
Q

What is New Source Performance Standards (NSPS)?

A

Federal program that requires installation of control measures during construction.

292
Q

What are Federal HAPs/MACT?

A

Program with the purpose of controlling hazardous air pollutants; establishes MACT (Maximum Achievable Control Technology) standards to major sources and area sources

293
Q

3 major greenhouse gas (GHG) regulations

A
  1. PSD Program Best Available Control Technology (BACT) review for GHG emissions
  2. Motor vehicle efficiency regulations
  3. New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for fossil-fuel power plants
294
Q

What are the proposed New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for fossil-fuel power plants?

A

Coal plants: carbon-capture or co-fire with natural gas by 2030

Gas turbines: carbon-capture or hydrogen fuel by 2035

295
Q

What is Midcontinent Independent System Operator (MISO)?

A

dictates the electricity market; specifically, who gets to run electricity generation and who does not at a given time

Bids determine operation, meaning the lowest cost operates; “lower cost or lose money”

296
Q

How was electricity generation distributed in 2022?

A
  • Natural gas: 40%
  • Coal: 20%
  • Nuclear: 18%
  • Renewables: 22%
  • Petroleum and other: 1%
297
Q

Why is solar energy a preferential energy source?

A

It is a renewable, clean energy source and is now one of the cheapest forms of electricity; the price of electricity from solar has declined by 89% over the last 10 years

Moreover, batteries also decreasing in price, aiding this solar price decrease and driving market share

298
Q

What are common law and tort law?

A

Common Law involves court suits by private parties to abate air pollution or to recover damages caused by air pollution

Tort law is a branch of common law that deals with harm to personal party, and includes:
- Nuisance
- Trespass
- Negligence

299
Q

What is nuisance law?

A

Part of tort law (branch law dealing with harm to personal party) that involves unreasonable interference with use of one’s land - must be intentional or negligent action (lack of care).

In nuisance suits, goal is to get judge to order recovery of damages and grant injunction to stop or reduce air pollution.

300
Q

3 weaknesses of nuisance law

A
  1. Application for injunction is a request for equitable relief, meaning court must balance equities
  2. Court considers damage to landowner
  3. Public nuisance can only be abated by criminal prosecution in the name of the state
301
Q

3 potential outcomes of “balancing the equities” (equitable relief) in nuisance law

A
  1. Injunction could force polluter out of business
  2. Court can refuse injunction but award damages
  3. Future suits for damages are not permitted and polluter goes on polluting
302
Q

What is trespass law?

A

Part of tort law (branch law dealing with harm to personal party) that involves physical invasion of landownders right to exclusive possession of property
- Does not consider whether unreasonable or not
- Trespasser liable for all damages
- Often has larger statute of limitations

303
Q

What is negligence law?

A

Part of tort law (branch law dealing with harm to personal party) that involves damage due to lack of action. This includes:
- Personal injuries due to something in the air
- Failure of polluter to conform to a certain standard of conduct

Weakness is that causation proof can be difficult (e.g., lung cancer: asbestos or cigarettes?)

304
Q

What was the goal of early environmental reformers?

A

Early environmental reformers did not seek a return to nature, but to preserve the economic benefits of the industrial system and to work for a better urban environment

305
Q

What is the Constitutional basis for air pollution legislation?

A

Interstate Commerce Clause: Congress can legislate to tax and spend for the general welfare

States: every state has authority to enact laws to enhance the “public health, safety, and welfare” - general police power can control all manner of environmental harms

Local - general police power to protect public health and welfare

306
Q

What was the 1955, 1960, and 1962 air pollution legislation?

A

Public Health Service authorized to:
- Conduct research and programs
- Provide assistance to governments
- Affirm that state and local governments had the fundamental responsibility for air pollution control

1960/1962 Amendments:
- Special focus on motor vehicles and SO2

307
Q

What was the 1963 Clean Air Act?

A
  • Grants for program development and improvment of air pollution control efforts
  • Research and training assistance
  • Federal responsibility for automobile and SO2 pollution research
  • Federal research responsibility for interstate air pollution problem
308
Q

What was the 1965 Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act?

A
  • Authorized promulgation of auto emissions standards
  • Authorized formation of National Air Pollution Control Administration (NAPCA)
309
Q

What was the 1967 Air Quality Act?

A

Required development of:
- Federal air quality criteria
- State air quality standards
- Interstate air quality control regions (AQCRs)

310
Q

8 major amendments of the 1970 Clean Air Act

A
  1. Established NAAQS
  2. Require State Implementation Plans (SIPs) to achieve NAAQS
  3. Immediately designate AQCRs
  4. Set New Source Performance Standards (NSPS)
  5. Set National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs)
  6. Set automobile and fuel standards
  7. Allows right of citizen suits
  8. Provides for federal enforcement authority in air pollution emergencies and violations
311
Q

What are State Implementation Plans (SIPs)?

A

Part of the 1970 Clean Air Act that requires individual states to develop and submit plans for the implementation, enforcement, and maintenance of each regulated pollutant.

In other words, plan for how a state will attain/maintain NAAQS.

312
Q

What were National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs), and what 7 pollutants did it include?

A

Like NAAQS, but for pollutants that are more hazardous and not necessarily limited to human health

In 20 years, regulated these 7 pollutants:
1. Mercury
2. Asbestos
3. Beryllium
4. Arsenic
5. Benzene
6. Radioactive isotopes
7. Vinyl chloride

NESHAPs were replaced by Air Toxics provisions of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments.

313
Q

What are the Air Toxics Provisions?

A

Part of the 1990 Clean Air Act that regulates pollutants more hazardous than criteria pollutants; replaced NESHAPs and regulates 189 pollutants

314
Q

What did the 1970 Clean Air Act do with regard to citizen suits?

A

Gives citizens (usually environmental groups) standing in federal courts; specifically, gives right to sue U.S. EPA and right to sue pollution source

315
Q

5 main 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments

A
  1. Identifies non-attainment areas for ozone and carbon monocide reductions
  2. Mobile source reductions including alternative clean fuels, regulation of benzene and formaldehyde emissions
  3. Phase-out of stratospheric ozone depleting substances
  4. Emission and trading for stationary sources of SO2 (for acid rain reduction)
  5. Low sulfur coal and energy conservation for acid rain reduction
316
Q

What did the 1990 Clean Air Act do with regard to the regulation of ozone depleting substances (ODCs)?

A

Lists Class I & II of ODCs, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), also regulating products containing CFCs and establishing a national recycling and emission reduction program

317
Q

What were the goals of the 1970 Clean Air Act with regard to motor vehicle emissions controls?

A
  • 90% reduction of VOCs and CO by 1975
  • 90% reduction of NOx by 1976
  • Car makers had to implement catalytic reduction mufflers
  • USEPA given authority to regulate fuel additives (leaded fuel)
318
Q

What did the 1974 Energy Supply and Coordination Act and 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments do with regard to motor vehicle emissions?

A

1974 Energy Supply and Coordination Act:
- Car makers went to Supreme Court and emission standards were postponed until 1977 model vehicles
- USEPA given authority to impose interim standards

1977 Clean Air Act:
- Further postponed deadlines
- USEPA given discretion to postpone standards requirement
- Relaxed NOx standards

319
Q

Have motor vehicle emission regulations been successful?

A

80% less per car than in the mid 60s, though nationally motor vehicle emissions still account for 50% VOCs and NOx emission, 90% CO, 50% hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), and 15% of CO2

320
Q

3 main state and local air pollution functions

A
  1. States required to submit State Implementation Plans (SIPs)
  2. States can assume responsibility for NSPS, NESHAP, Air Toxics, PSD reviews, new source reviews, etc.
  3. States can write and enforce rules and regulations
321
Q

3 main state regulatory responsibilities

A
  1. Control boards
    - Write rules and regulations
  2. Administration (e.g., DNR)
  3. Attorney Generals
    - Responsible for initiating enforcement actions in courts
322
Q

How have ozone NAAQS been revised over time?

A
  • In 1997, 1 hr standard replaced by 8 hr standard at 80 ppb
  • Obama administration set new lower standard at 70 ppb
323
Q

How have PM NAAQS been revised over time?

A
  • In 1997, EPA established annual and 24 hr PM2.5 standards
  • In 2006, EPA revoked annual PM10 standard and lowered 24 hr PM2.5 standard
324
Q

What percentage of world vehicles have CA/US/EU new engine standards?

A

Many countries have adopted new engine standards first demonstrated in California; 71% of global vehicles have adopted these, 29% have no standards

325
Q

What are the dangers of diesel fuel?

A

Produces many harmful emissions when it is burned, and diesel-fueled vehicles are major sources of harmful pollutants, such as ground-level ozone and PM

326
Q

What was Edison’s view of energy production?

A

“The scheme of combustion in order to get power makes me sick to think of - it is so wasteful…Sunshine is a form of energy, and the winds, and the tides…there must surely come a time when heat and power will be stored in unlimited quantities in every community all gathered by natural forces.”

Major advocate for solar and wind energy.

327
Q

What is RACT?

A

Reasonably Available Control Technology, considers economic, technical, and political practicality; applied to new or significantly modified existing sources (NSPS)

328
Q

What is BACT?

A

Best Available Control Technology, goal is to achieve the highest degree of emission reduction possible with a limited consideration of cost; applied to new coal-fired utilities in Class I PSD

329
Q

What is MACT?

A

Maximum Achievable Control Technology, offers higher degree of control than BACT; applied to Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) (NESHAP)

330
Q

4 market-based policies for emissions

A
  1. Bubble Policy - groups of plants may increase their emissions at one or more sources by decreasing emission to a more significant degree at other sources within a facility; excess emission reductions may be banked or traded
  2. Emissions Trading - emission reduction credits (ERCs) may be sold or traded to other corporations to meet regulatory requirements
  3. Emission Allowances - a source is allowed to emit so many units of regulated pollutant
  4. Pollution Charges - encourage sources to reduce emissions when control costs are equal to pollution charge rates
331
Q

What are the pros and cons of banking and trading air pollution credits?

A

Pro:
- Rewards utilities that surpass emission standards while penalizing those that pollute

Con:
- Who decides the monetary value of clean, healthy air?

332
Q

2 emission tax strategies

A
  1. Commons - “the air belongs to everyone” so we all pay
  2. Internalize vs. Externalize Cost - one economic unit externalizes his pollution at the cost of other economic units and everyone else, or make polluter internalize costs (but this is so costly that it won’t happen)
333
Q

What is the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA)?

A

Requires impact evaluation for new power plants and industries (how will new facility impact air and water, etc.); this was the first written law to establish broad framework for protecting the environment

334
Q

What is the NEPA Umbrella?

A

Metaphor for the broad coverage of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969; it oversees the Clean Air Act, etc.

Before ANY action is taken, must use NEPA to assess the potential impact

335
Q

Who is Alice Hamilton?

A

One of the founders of occupational health, first woman appointed to the faculty of Harvard Medical School

336
Q

4 bioethical foundations

A
  1. Respect for autonomy as to health - human dignity and freedom; individuals can make choices rather than having others decide for them…air pollution is imposed by others
  2. Nonmaleficence - first do no harm (doctor-legislator)
  3. Beneficence - the principal of doing good; promote the public health
  4. Justice - social justice, fairness, equity and impartiality; the poor and minorities should not be exposed to more hazardous air pollution
337
Q

6 components to addressing air pollution

A
  1. Technology transfer - from developed to developing world
  2. Sustainable economic systems - without destroying environment
  3. Control of population growth - while preserving quality of individual and family life
  4. World willingness to save itself from carbon pollution
  5. Acceptance of some degree of risk
  6. Prevention of conventional and nuclear war
338
Q

What is the metaphor of the boiling frog?

A

If a frog is placed in boiling water, it will jump out, but if it is placed in cold water that is slowly heated, it will not perceive the danger and will be cooked to death.

In this metaphor, we are the frogs with regard to global warming.

339
Q

What is environmental justice?

A

Fair treatment for people of all races, cultures, and incomes, regarding the development of environmental laws, regulations, and policies

340
Q

What did the Trump administration EPA attempt to do?

A

EPA proposed that all data (even from the past) must be revealed, even confidential human subjects data or the study can’t be used; for instance, the Harvard 6 Cities Study would be removed from consideration

341
Q

What is public policy?

A

A system of actions, regulatory measures, laws, and funding priorities on a given topic promulgated by a governmental entity or its representatives.

It is also the process of decision-making and analysis of governmental decisions.

342
Q

How does policymaking intersect with law, science, and public interest?

A
343
Q

Where is Wisconsin not meeting the current ozone NAAQS?

A

Along the Lake Michigan shoreline, including Kenosha, Racine, Milwaukee, Sheboygan

344
Q

Describe federalism under the Clean Air Act

A
  1. The EPA sets the NAAQS
  2. The EPA + state recommendation determines areas where NAAQS are not being met
  3. States + EPA approval carry out State Implementation Plans (SIPs)
345
Q

How does ozone form around Lake Michigan?

A

NOx and VOCs from Chicago move to the Lake Michigan shoreline via upwinds. UV from the sun combines with these pollutants to generate ozone.

346
Q

How do Lake Michigan lakeshore ozone levels compare to inland and far northern ozone levels?

A

Lakeshore ozone levels are much higher, and have been higher than the design value standard at some points. Lakeshore, inland, and far northern ozone has all trended downwards over time, but lakeshore is easily the most problematic.

347
Q

How have ozone precursor (NOx and VOC) concentrations changed in Wisconsin over time?

A

NOx and VOC concentrations have consistently decrease on a year-to-year basis

348
Q

What are the primary sources of ozone-causing emissions (NOx and VOCs)?

A

Most controllable emissions are from mobile sources (42%); however, state control is mostly limited to area and stationary sources (compose 22% of emissions)

349
Q

Is Wisconsin responsible for ozone measured in the state’s nonattainment areas (areas where ozone NAAQS not met)?

A

WI is responsible for no more than 10% of the ozone measured in WI’s nonattainment areas…all other states are responsible for 49%

350
Q

What is the Clean Air Act “good neighbor” requirement?

A

Every state must adopt a State Implementation Plan (SIP), and it must contain provisions prohibiting air emissions which will “contribute significantly to nonattainment in, or interfere with maintenance by, any other state.”

This is clearly not working in Wisconsin’s nonattainment areas, which don’t meet the NAAQS because of other states. EPA “transport rules” are intended to ameliorate this.

351
Q

Describe how the “good neighbor” requirement is supposed to work vs. how it actually works

A

The “good neighbor” requirement of the Clean Air Act states that every state must adopt a State Implementation Plan (SIP), and it must contain provisions prohibiting air emissions which will “contribute significantly to nonattainment in, or interfere with maintenance by, any other state.”

How it is supposed to work:
- Nonattainment areas adopt measures to reduce emissions
- Out-of-state contributing areas reduce their emissions at the same time (good neighbor help)
- Then, nonattainment areas would meet the standard

How it actually works:
- Nonattainment areas adopt measures to reduce emissions
- Neighboring states do not reduce their emissions sufficiently, if at all
- Then, nonattainment areas fail to attain and the neighbors are glad they aren’t part of that

352
Q

What are EPA “transport rules?”

A

When states do not submit a required State Implementation Plan (SIP), EPA must issue an FIP…the EPA has had to issue FIPs to address transport requirements. In this case, FIPs are known as “transfer rules.”

These are used to fix problems with the “good neighbor” rule.

353
Q

What is the EPA’s newly proposed Good Neighbor Plan?

A

Transport rule for ozone NAAQS, aimed at correcting problems with existing Good Neighbor Plan (states contributing to WI ozone problem). Requires emissions reductions from power plants…DNR identified numerous issues with the rule with respect to upwind state impacts on Wisconsin and is seeking to correct it in this manner

354
Q

2 ways Wisconsin is involved in the new Good Neighbor Plan litigation

A
  1. Joined a multistate petition led by New York in support of EPA to preserve the rule
  2. Separate lawsuit against EPA challenging shortcomings of the existing rule
355
Q

Wisconsin’s 4 issues with the existing Good Neighbor Plan

A
  1. It doesn’t require sufficient emission reductions in upwind states
  2. It fails to require those reductions to be implemented as expeditiously as possible nor in accordance with Clean Air Act deadlines
  3. Wisconsin will unlawfully bear the burden to make up for emissions reductions not made by upwind states
  4. EPA failed to consider mobile source emissions when assessing upwind state contributions

Environmental Studies 502 (2 decks)

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